2. Trail Sense
3. English

<!-- K: fire, flame, light, heat, warm, burn -->
<!-- S: Build and maintain a fire. -->

Knowing how to make fire can help you stay warm, purify water, and cook food. You should never leave a fire unattended and must be careful to avoid it spreading.

## Be prepared
<!-- K: prepare, gear, knowledge, skill, starter, matches, lighter, steel, ferro, ferrocerium, tinder -->
<!-- S: Bring a firestarter. Learn how to build and maintain a fire. -->

### Gear
**Necessities**:
- Firestarter (waterproof matches, lighters, or fire steel - carry at least two different types)
- You can carry a credit card sized fresnel lens in your wallet or phone case as an emergency backup firestarter.

**Optional**:
- Tinder (dryer lint, cotton balls, or commercial fire starters)

### Knowledge and skills
Start by learning how to do the following:
- Build a fire using multiple fire starters (matches, lighters, fire steel)
- Gather and prepare tinder, kindling, and fuel
- Maintain a fire
- Extinguish a fire
- Build a fire in wet conditions

Once you have mastered these skills, you should learn how to do the following:
- Protect a fire from wind and rain
- Construct and use a bow drill
- Make charcoal

## Preparing a fire site
<!-- K: build, gather, prepare, tinder, kindling, fuel, location, fatwood -->
<!-- S: Choose a flat, dry area protected from the wind. Gather tinder, kindling, and fuel. -->

You should prepare the fire site before attempting to start a fire. Choose a flat, dry area protected from the wind that is close to your shelter and a fuel supply. Clear the ground of flammable material and, if possible, line the area with dry rocks, dirt, or sand. Do not construct a fire over a root system or peat. In snowy environments, lay down logs to prevent the fire from touching the snow. Gather all materials before trying to start the fire.

You should also be aware of local laws and regulations, as some areas may not allow fires.

### Gathering materials

You need three types of materials to start and maintain a fire: tinder, kindling, and fuel. Tinder is a dry, fine material that catches fire easily and is used to start a fire. Kindling consists of small sticks and twigs that burn easily and are used to build up the fire after lighting the tinder. Finally, fuel is used to sustain the fire and consists of larger sticks or logs. To make a fire, find about a handful of tinder, two handfuls of kindling, and a pile of fuel - double the amount you estimate you'll need.

Finding dry wood can be difficult, but look for dead branches on trees, fallen branches that aren't fully touching the ground, and sticks that break cleanly when snapped. You can dry out damp tinder by placing it near your body or in your sleeping bag, and you can dry out fuel by placing it near the fire.

- **Tinder**
- Shredded inner bark (birch, cedar, chestnut, red elm)
- Fine wood scrapings or shavings
- Fatwood: resin-rich wood from pine trees, typically found at the base of dead branches
- Dry grass, leaves, or pine needles
- Dry powdered sap from pine trees
- Crushed fibers from dead plants
- Seed down (cattail, milkweed, thistle)
- Feather sticks (wood shavings attached to a stick)
- Commercial fire starters
- Cotton balls (preferably soaked in petroleum jelly)
- Lint
- Paper
- Tinder fungus or chaga
- **Kindling**
- Sticks and twigs (pencil to finger thickness)
- Thinly split wood
- Plastics, such as straws or spoons
- Wood soaked in a flammable liquid such as bug spray (use caution)
- **Fuel**
- Prefer fallen wood that you can break by hand
- To break a larger piece of wood, insert it between two live trees at the point you want to break it and push it to the side until it snaps

### Feather sticks
A feather stick can be used as tinder and kindling to help start a fire when other tinder is hard to find.

To make a feather stick:

1. Find a straight, thick, dry stick.
2. Starting near the top, use a knife to cut a wood curl. Slice down to the base of the stick, but don't cut it off.
3. Repeat this process, but cut along the ridge created by your last cut. Be careful not to cut off the previous curls.
4. Gather any curls that fell off.
5. To start a fire, follow the next section using the feather stick as your tinder bundle.


## Starting a fire
<!-- K: start, light, ignite, matches, lighters, steel, ferro, ferrocerium, magnesium, flint, bow-drill, hand-drill, drill, magnifying, lens, tepee, structure -->
<!-- S: If you have a fire starter, use it. You can improvise if required, but it will be more difficult and requires practice. -->

Once you have a site prepared and a sufficient supply of tinder, kindling, and fuel, you are ready to start the fire. As you build up the fire, be careful not to smother it by always leaving a section with an open flame exposed. Also, avoid adding damp or green wood until your fire is hot and burning fuel.

Here are the steps you can follow to get it going:

1. Place the tinder into a small bundle or nest on the ground.
2. Lean a few pieces of kindling against the tinder in a tepee shape.
3. Light the tinder.
4. Carefully add kindling to the fire and blow into it to encourage growth.
5. Once your fire is steady, add fuel while maintaining a tepee structure.

**Note**: When blowing into a fire, be gentle and take breaths away from the smoke.

### Nursing an ember
An ember is a small piece of tinder that is burning but has not formed a flame. Once you have an ember, gently blow into it and feed it more tinder until a flame appears. Sometimes, it is easier to hold the tinder containing the ember and cup your hands closer together to find the right balance of oxygen and fuel.

### Firestarters

- **Matches/lighters**: Always have waterproof matches or a reliable lighter in your kit. These are the easiest methods to start a fire: just put the flame to the tinder.
- **Fire steel**: Durable and works in all weather conditions, producing sparks to ignite your tinder. Scrape it quickly with the back of a knife or scraper to create sparks - you can also use a sharp piece of quartz or flint as a striker. For best results, pin the fire steel against the tinder and ground, and scrape the steel toward the tinder. Some fire steels come with a magnesium block, which you can scrape into the tinder before striking to help catch a spark.
- **Magnifying glass/lens**: Using a lens, focus sunlight into a small point on the tinder. As the tinder starts to smoke, gently blow into it and move the lens closer to maintain a small point. A magnifying glass, prescription glasses, a fresnel lens, or even a clear bottle filled with water can work. This may take a while, and direct sunlight is required.


The following methods are more challenging and require practice. If you find yourself here, it may be best to focus on insulation and shelter to stay warm.

- **Flint and steel**: Strike a flint rock with a carbon steel tool to create sparks. The tinder must be very dry and delicate. Stainless steel will not work.
- **Bow drill**: Create friction by spinning a stick (drill) on a wooden base (fireboard) using a bow to rotate the drill.
- **Hand drill**: Create friction by spinning a stick (drill) between your hands on a wooden base (fireboard). Apply downward pressure while spinning.

### Using a bow drill
1. Find a small, flat stone or piece of hardwood with a small depression near the center to create the socket.
2. Create the drill by finding a straight, dry stick about 10-12 inches long and ¾ inch in diameter.
3. Find a flat, dry piece of softwood for the fireboard. Yucca, tamarack, aspen, balsam fir, basswood, poplar, cypress, cottonwood, alder, red cedar, and willow are preferred. Avoid resinous woods like pine.
4. Carve a slight depression about ½ to ¾ inch from the edge of the fireboard.
5. On the underside of the fireboard, make a V-shaped cut from the board's edge to the depression.
6. Find a curved stick that can be used for the bow. It should be about 12-14 inches long and ½ inch in diameter.
7. Attach a cord or shoelace to both ends of the bow.
8. Find the fire pan - a flat piece of bark or wood to catch the ember.
9. Wrap the drill into the bowstring so that it can roll as it moves along the string.
10. Place the fireboard on top of the fire pan so the V-shaped notch is touching it.
11. Place the drill (attached to the bow) into the depression in the fireboard.
12. Place the socket onto the top end of the drill and apply downward pressure with your non-dominant hand.
13. Place your foot on the fireboard (on the same side as your non-dominant hand) and rest the hand holding the socket on your knee.
14. With your dominant hand, move the bow side to side to cause the drill to spin. Be sure to use the full length of the bowstring. Keep a steady, fast pace.
15. You will start to see smoke after a while. Keep going until you are sure an ember has been created.
16. The ember should be transferred onto the fire pan (it may already be there) and moved to a tinder bundle, where you can nurse it into a fire.


If you are using a hand drill, follow the same steps as the bow drill, except don't create the bow and socket. Instead, roll the drill between your palms until you reach the bottom, then start again from the top.

## Extinguishing a fire
<!-- K: extinguish, safety -->
<!-- S: Thoroughly extinguish your fire with water or dirt. -->

You should always have a plan to quickly extinguish your fire in case it begins to spread. Thoroughly extinguish your fire by dousing it with water or covering it with dirt. Make sure no embers remain that could reignite or cause a wildfire. If you are on a beach, do not cover the fire with sand; it can insulate the heat and cause burns.

## Increasing warmth
<!-- K: rock, reflector, hand-warmer -->
<!-- S: Thoroughly extinguish your fire with water or dirt. -->

To maximize the heat from your fire, you can add more dry fuel, build a fire reflector, heat up rocks, or increase the insulation of your clothing and shelter.

### Fire reflector
A fire reflector is a wall built behind the fire to reflect heat toward you and protect the fire from wind. Use rocks, logs, or snow to create a barrier.


### Heating rocks

You can also heat rocks **near** the fire and place them in your shelter or sleeping area. To avoid burns or fires, don't let the rocks get too hot; they should be warm to the touch. Be sure to check how hot the stones are before touching them. Do not use rocks found near water sources, as they can explode in a fire. Alternatively, you can heat water and place it in a container or bottle to keep warm.

## Craft: charcoal
<!-- K: charcoal, filter, coal, craft -->
<!-- S: You can make charcoal by not allowing wood to burn fully. -->

Charcoal is made by preventing wood from completely burning. It can be used for filtering water, medicine, and as fuel for fires. You can grind charcoal into powder by placing it in a container and crushing it with a stick or rock.

**Resources**
- Wood
- Water or dirt

**Instructions**
1. Burn a fire down to coals.
2. Douse the fire with water or dirt to quickly extinguish it.
3. Wait for the coals to cool; some charcoal should be among the ashes. Charcoal is very light and entirely black.

<!-- K: fire, flame, light, heat, warm, burn -->
<!-- S: Build and maintain a fire. -->

Knowing how to make fire can help you stay warm, purify water, and cook food. You should never leave a fire unattended and must be careful to avoid it spreading.

## Be prepared
<!-- K: prepare, gear, knowledge, skill, starter, matches, lighter, steel, ferro, ferrocerium, tinder -->
<!-- S: Bring a firestarter. Learn how to build and maintain a fire. -->

### Gear
**Necessities**:
- Firestarter (waterproof matches, lighters, or fire steel - carry at least two different types)
- You can carry a credit card sized fresnel lens in your wallet or phone case as an emergency backup firestarter.

**Optional**:
- Tinder (dryer lint, cotton balls, or commercial fire starters)

### Knowledge and skills
Start by learning how to do the following:
- Build a fire using multiple fire starters (matches, lighters, fire steel)
- Gather and prepare tinder, kindling, and fuel
- Maintain a fire
- Extinguish a fire
- Build a fire in wet conditions

Once you have mastered these skills, you should learn how to do the following:
- Protect a fire from wind and rain
- Construct and use a bow drill
- Make charcoal

## Preparing a fire site
<!-- K: build, gather, prepare, tinder, kindling, fuel, location, fatwood -->
<!-- S: Choose a flat, dry area protected from the wind. Gather tinder, kindling, and fuel. -->

You should prepare the fire site before attempting to start a fire. Choose a flat, dry area protected from the wind that is close to your shelter and a fuel supply. Clear the ground of flammable material and, if possible, line the area with dry rocks, dirt, or sand. Do not construct a fire over a root system or peat. In snowy environments, lay down logs to prevent the fire from touching the snow. Gather all materials before trying to start the fire.

You should also be aware of local laws and regulations, as some areas may not allow fires.

### Gathering materials

You need three types of materials to start and maintain a fire: tinder, kindling, and fuel. Tinder is a dry, fine material that catches fire easily and is used to start a fire. Kindling consists of small sticks and twigs that burn easily and are used to build up the fire after lighting the tinder. Finally, fuel is used to sustain the fire and consists of larger sticks or logs. To make a fire, find about a handful of tinder, two handfuls of kindling, and a pile of fuel - double the amount you estimate you'll need.

Finding dry wood can be difficult, but look for dead branches on trees, fallen branches that aren't fully touching the ground, and sticks that break cleanly when snapped. You can dry out damp tinder by placing it near your body or in your sleeping bag, and you can dry out fuel by placing it near the fire.

- **Tinder**
- Shredded inner bark (birch, cedar, chestnut, red elm)
- Fine wood scrapings or shavings
- Fatwood: resin-rich wood from pine trees, typically found at the base of dead branches
- Dry grass, leaves, or pine needles
- Dry powdered sap from pine trees
- Crushed fibers from dead plants
- Seed down (cattail, milkweed, thistle)
- Feather sticks (wood shavings attached to a stick)
- Commercial fire starters
- Cotton balls (preferably soaked in petroleum jelly)
- Lint
- Paper
- Tinder fungus or chaga
- **Kindling**
- Sticks and twigs (pencil to finger thickness)
- Thinly split wood
- Plastics, such as straws or spoons
- Wood soaked in a flammable liquid such as bug spray (use caution)
- **Fuel**
- Prefer fallen wood that you can break by hand
- To break a larger piece of wood, insert it between two live trees at the point you want to break it and push it to the side until it snaps

### Feather sticks
A feather stick can be used as tinder and kindling to help start a fire when other tinder is hard to find.

To make a feather stick:

1. Find a straight, thick, dry stick.
2. Starting near the top, use a knife to cut a wood curl. Slice down to the base of the stick, but don't cut it off.
3. Repeat this process, but cut along the ridge created by your last cut. Be careful not to cut off the previous curls.
4. Gather any curls that fell off.
5. To start a fire, follow the next section using the feather stick as your tinder bundle.


## Starting a fire
<!-- K: start, light, ignite, matches, lighters, steel, ferro, ferrocerium, magnesium, flint, bow-drill, hand-drill, drill, magnifying, lens, tepee, structure -->
<!-- S: If you have a fire starter, use it. You can improvise if required, but it will be more difficult and requires practice. -->

Once you have a site prepared and a sufficient supply of tinder, kindling, and fuel, you are ready to start the fire. As you build up the fire, be careful not to smother it by always leaving a section with an open flame exposed. Also, avoid adding damp or green wood until your fire is hot and burning fuel.

Here are the steps you can follow to get it going:

1. Place the tinder into a small bundle or nest on the ground.
2. Lean a few pieces of kindling against the tinder in a tepee shape.
3. Light the tinder.
4. Carefully add kindling to the fire and blow into it to encourage growth.
5. Once your fire is steady, add fuel while maintaining a tepee structure.

**Note**: When blowing into a fire, be gentle and take breaths away from the smoke.

### Nursing an ember
An ember is a small piece of tinder that is burning but has not formed a flame. Once you have an ember, gently blow into it and feed it more tinder until a flame appears. Sometimes, it is easier to hold the tinder containing the ember and cup your hands closer together to find the right balance of oxygen and fuel.

### Firestarters

- **Matches/lighters**: Always have waterproof matches or a reliable lighter in your kit. These are the easiest methods to start a fire: just put the flame to the tinder.
- **Fire steel**: Durable and works in all weather conditions, producing sparks to ignite your tinder. Scrape it quickly with the back of a knife or scraper to create sparks - you can also use a sharp piece of quartz or flint as a striker. For best results, pin the fire steel against the tinder and ground, and scrape the steel toward the tinder. Some fire steels come with a magnesium block, which you can scrape into the tinder before striking to help catch a spark.
- **Magnifying glass/lens**: Using a lens, focus sunlight into a small point on the tinder. As the tinder starts to smoke, gently blow into it and move the lens closer to maintain a small point. A magnifying glass, prescription glasses, a fresnel lens, or even a clear bottle filled with water can work. This may take a while, and direct sunlight is required.


The following methods are more challenging and require practice. If you find yourself here, it may be best to focus on insulation and shelter to stay warm.

- **Flint and steel**: Strike a flint rock with a carbon steel tool to create sparks. The tinder must be very dry and delicate. Stainless steel will not work.
- **Bow drill**: Create friction by spinning a stick (drill) on a wooden base (fireboard) using a bow to rotate the drill.
- **Hand drill**: Create friction by spinning a stick (drill) between your hands on a wooden base (fireboard). Apply downward pressure while spinning.

### Using a bow drill
1. Find a small, flat stone or piece of hardwood with a small depression near the center to create the socket.
2. Create the drill by finding a straight, dry stick about 10-12 inches long and ¾ inch in diameter.
3. Find a flat, dry piece of softwood for the fireboard. Yucca, tamarack, aspen, balsam fir, basswood, poplar, cypress, cottonwood, alder, red cedar, and willow are preferred. Avoid resinous woods like pine.
4. Carve a slight depression about ½ to ¾ inch from the edge of the fireboard.
5. On the underside of the fireboard, make a V-shaped cut from the board's edge to the depression.
6. Find a curved stick that can be used for the bow. It should be about 12-14 inches long and ½ inch in diameter.
7. Attach a cord or shoelace to both ends of the bow.
8. Find the fire pan - a flat piece of bark or wood to catch the ember.
9. Wrap the drill into the bowstring so that it can roll as it moves along the string.
10. Place the fireboard on top of the fire pan so the V-shaped notch is touching it.
11. Place the drill (attached to the bow) into the depression in the fireboard.
12. Place the socket onto the top end of the drill and apply downward pressure with your non-dominant hand.
13. Place your foot on the fireboard (on the same side as your non-dominant hand) and rest the hand holding the socket on your knee.
14. With your dominant hand, move the bow side to side to cause the drill to spin. Be sure to use the full length of the bowstring. Keep a steady, fast pace.
15. You will start to see smoke after a while. Keep going until you are sure an ember has been created.
16. The ember should be transferred onto the fire pan (it may already be there) and moved to a tinder bundle, where you can nurse it into a fire.


If you are using a hand drill, follow the same steps as the bow drill, except don't create the bow and socket. Instead, roll the drill between your palms until you reach the bottom, then start again from the top.

## Extinguishing a fire
<!-- K: extinguish, safety -->
<!-- S: Thoroughly extinguish your fire with water or dirt. -->

You should always have a plan to quickly extinguish your fire in case it begins to spread. Thoroughly extinguish your fire by dousing it with water or covering it with dirt. Make sure no embers remain that could reignite or cause a wildfire. If you are on a beach, do not cover the fire with sand; it can insulate the heat and cause burns.

## Increasing warmth
<!-- K: rock, reflector, hand-warmer -->
<!-- S: Thoroughly extinguish your fire with water or dirt. -->

To maximize the heat from your fire, you can add more dry fuel, build a fire reflector, heat up rocks, or increase the insulation of your clothing and shelter.

### Fire reflector
A fire reflector is a wall built behind the fire to reflect heat toward you and protect the fire from wind. Use rocks, logs, or snow to create a barrier.


### Heating rocks

You can also heat rocks **near** the fire and place them in your shelter or sleeping area. To avoid burns or fires, don't let the rocks get too hot; they should be warm to the touch. Be sure to check how hot the stones are before touching them. Do not use rocks found near water sources, as they can explode in a fire. Alternatively, you can heat water and place it in a container or bottle to keep warm.

## Craft: charcoal
<!-- K: charcoal, filter, coal, craft -->
<!-- S: You can make charcoal by not allowing wood to burn fully. -->

Charcoal is made by preventing wood from completely burning. It can be used for filtering water, medicine, and as fuel for fires. You can grind charcoal into powder by placing it in a container and crushing it with a stick or rock.

**Resources**
- Wood
- Water or dirt

**Instructions**
1. Burn a fire down to coals.
2. Douse the fire with water or dirt to quickly extinguish it.
3. Wait for the coals to cool; some charcoal should be among the ashes. Charcoal is very light and entirely black.

<!-- K: overview, survival, situation, rescue, lost -->
<!-- S: Be prepared, stop if lost, and think before acting. -->

This guide covers essential survival skills needed to return safely from a survival situation. It is not a substitute for professional training or experience and should only be used as a reference. This guide is intended to be practical and to the point, with the sole purpose of getting you out of a survival situation. Therefore, most bushcraft and impractical techniques for the average hiker have been left out.

If you are in a survival situation, try to stay calm and start with this chapter's "What to Do in a Survival Situation" section.

## Be prepared
<!-- K: prepare, gear, knowledge, skill -->
<!-- S: Bring a survival kit with you on all trips, and let others know your plans. Learn how to act in a survival situation and signal for help. -->

Before entering the wilderness, you should be as prepared as possible. This means you should plan your route and alternative routes, pack the proper gear, learn the necessary skills, and tell someone your plans.

### Gear

**Necessities**:
- Cell phone
- Money
- Whistle
- Spare batteries (for flashlight) and a battery pack for your phone
- Assorted bandages
- Gauze
- Surgical tape
- Safety pin or needle
- Tweezers
- Antibiotic ointment
- Sunscreen
- Insect repellent
- Prescription medications, contact lenses, and glasses
- Pain relievers (aspirin, ibuprofen, acetaminophen)
- Hand sanitizer
- Epinephrine auto-injector (if you have severe allergies)
- Asthma inhaler (if you have asthma)
- Water (enough for the duration of your trip, plus a bit extra)
- Bring a water purification method for longer trips and plan your route to include water sources.
- Water containers (ensure you have a container that you can boil water in)
- Food (enough for the duration of your trip, plus a bit extra). Some good options include:
- Nuts
- Seeds
- Dried fruit
- Jerky
- Energy bars
- Dehydrated meals (with extra water)
- Canned food (with a can opener if needed)
- Knife or multi-tool
- Bear bag or canister
- Emergency space blanket
- Poncho
- Change of clothing
- Extra socks
- Boots or sturdy shoes
- Sunglasses
- Cordage (paracord)
- Sewing kit (needle and thread)
- In colder climates:
- Insulating layers (jacket, pants, hat, gloves)
- Waterproof outer layer
- Waterproof or insulated boots
- Thermal underlayers
- Hand warmers
- For overnight stays:
- Sleeping bag
- Sleeping pad
- Tent
- Tarp
- Map
- Compass
- Flashlight or headlamp
- 7-day weather forecast

**Optional**:
- Signal mirror

See each chapter for additional gear recommendations.

### Knowledge and skills
Start by learning how to do the following:
- Follow local laws and regulations
- Act in a survival situation
- Signal for help
- Plan a trip

See each chapter for additional knowledge and skills recommendations.

### Additional reading
This guide only covers a small portion of the vast knowledge of survival and bushcraft. If you want to learn about more skills, then I recommend the following books (not affiliated):

- *Bushcraft 101* by Dave Canterbury
- *SAS Survival Handbook* by John 'Lofty' Wiseman
- *Tom Brown's Field Guide to Wilderness Survival* by Tom Brown Jr., with Brandt Morgan
- *Wilderness & Travel Medicine* by Eric A. Weiss, MD

## What to do in a survival situation
<!-- K: steps, stop, think, observe, plan, act -->
<!-- S: Stop, think, observe, plan, and act. The plan may often be to stay where you are and wait for help. -->

If you are in a survival situation, don't panic and follow these steps.

### Stop
The first and most important thing to do when lost is to stop moving. If you are in immediate danger in your current position, you can move, but otherwise, stay where you are. Use this time to calm down with deep breaths; you will get home.

### Think
Take a moment to think about your situation. Answer the following questions:
- What are your immediate needs?
- What resources do you have available?
- Did you tell someone your plans before you left? If so, when are they expecting you back?
- Which way did you come from?

### Observe
Next, observe your surroundings and assess your situation. The first thing to do is check your smartphone or GPS receiver for your location. If you have a maps app, open it and check if a map is available. You can also check for a signal to call for help. If you have no luck there, then look around and listen for signs of people, vehicles, or trails. Lastly, observe where you are and look for potential hazards or resources.

### Plan
Make a plan for your next steps. First, try to put in a call or text for help if you are not in immediate danger. What you do next is going to depend on your current situation. Here's some general advice for actions you can take, ordered by importance:

- If you are badly injured, treat your injuries.
- If it is cold, get warm through insulation, shelter, and then fire (if easily started).
- If the weather is bad, take shelter.
- If it is hot, find shade and drink water.
- If it is close to dark, set up a shelter and maybe a fire.
- Start conserving food and water, but don't let yourself get thirsty.
- If you have a minor injury, treat it.
- Record your current location in your phone or GPS; if you have a bright piece of clothing, tie it to a tree where you can see it.
- If you are out of water or just about to run out, find a water source and purify it.
- Signal for help using the techniques later in this chapter. Do this often for the best odds of being found.
- Try to determine your location using a map.
- Check for signs of the trail nearby, but always keep your initial location in sight.
- Identify nearby points of interest that you might be able to find on a map or hike to later if needed.
- If you are out of food, start thinking about how you will forage or catch something to eat. You can survive for a while without food but will weaken over time.
- If you have been out for several days to a week, you may need to consider hiking out. Leave a sign that you were here and in which direction you went, such as something tied to a tree and an arrow made of natural materials.

In summary, the priority is to treat severe injuries, seek shelter, signal for help, find water, build a fire (to stay warm and boil water), determine your location, check for ways out, find food, and last and only if you've been out there for a long time, hike out.

Your plan should adapt to your situation as it changes. Reevaluate often and stay hopeful that you will be found.

### Act
Once you have a plan, act on it. If at any point you feel unsafe, nervous, unsure, or your situation changes, then stop and reassess.

## Planning a trip
<!-- K: plan, trip -->
<!-- S: Research the terrain, weather, and wildlife before leaving. Plan a route on a map and bring the necessary supplies. Share this plan with someone you trust. -->

Before going into the wilderness, have a plan that you can stick to. Research the terrain, weather conditions, wildlife, and plants you might encounter. Check local regulations and any permits you may need. Use an up-to-date map to plan your route and some alternative routes if the trails are impassable. Also, look up trail conditions and the weather forecast for your trip.

Once you have a trip planned out, pack the necessary gear and supplies and check all of it to ensure it is functional. You should share your plan with a trusted person, including the routes, who you are going with, when you will be back, and when you will contact them. If you don't have someone to whom you can tell these plans, leave a note with this information in a very visible place in your home. While you are hiking, stick to your route and avoid unnecessary risks.

## Signaling for help
<!-- K: signal, help, contact, call, text, phone, whistle, mirror, smoke, flare, flashlight, ground-to-air -->
<!-- S: Try your cell phone; it may be able to make emergency calls. Otherwise, use a whistle, signal mirror, smoke, flares, flashlight, or ground-to-air signals to attract attention. -->

Signaling for help will increase your odds of being found. You should do this often, even if you don't think anyone is nearby or can hear you.

### Cell phone
Many phones can call emergency services even without a signal from your carrier. If you can't make a call, try sending a text message. Check your phone periodically to see if you have a signal, but otherwise, keep it off or in airplane mode to conserve battery. You may get a better signal by moving to higher ground or an open area.

### Whistle
Three short blasts are the universal signal for help. You may want to cover your ears when using the whistle at full volume.

If you don't have a whistle, you can use your fingers, but it will likely take practice.

1. Clean your fingers using hand sanitizer or soap and water.
2. Create a V-shape by touching your index finger and thumb together. Some may prefer to use the index and middle fingers of both hands to form a larger V-shape.
3. Press the tip of your tongue into the top of your mouth.
4. Curl your lips over your teeth.
5. Put the two fingers into your mouth and press on the tip of your tongue.
6. Seal your lips around your fingers and blow to create a whistle.

### Signal mirror
Hold the mirror with one hand and extend your other arm in front of you with your fingers in a V-shape and the target between your fingers. Reflect sunlight onto your fingers and slowly move the mirror up and down to flash sunlight at the potential rescuers. You can use a phone screen as a signal mirror, but it will be nowhere near as effective as an actual mirror and should be combined with another signal, such as smoke or a ground-to-air signal.

### Smoke
Smoke can attract attention during the day. Burning green vegetation can create a lot of smoke, but be sure to do this safely. A fire at night can also be used to attract attention.

### Flares
Flares are best seen at night or in low-visibility conditions. Follow the instructions on the flare packaging and be aware of any legal restrictions on their use.

### Flashlight
At night, a flashlight can be used to signal for help. Use the international distress signal, SOS, which is three short flashes, three long flashes, and three short flashes. If you don't remember the SOS signal, flash the light repeatedly in groups of three. Aim it in the direction of aircraft or other potential rescuers.

### Ground-to-air signals
Ground-to-air signals are large markers you create on the ground to communicate with aircraft. Use rocks, logs, or other materials to create a large "V" (means you require assistance) or an "X" (means you require medical assistance). Use contrasting or artificial colors to make the signal more visible.


## Disclaimer
This guide is provided for informational purposes only, and neither the author, publisher, nor any contributors guarantee its accuracy or suitability for any purpose. By using this guide, you acknowledge that outdoor activities involve risks, and you do so at your own risk, agreeing to hold harmless and indemnify the author, publisher, and any contributors from any claims or damages arising from your use of this guide. Always consult professionals for advice specific to your situation, as this guide does not substitute for professional guidance. Furthermore, be aware that local laws and regulations may affect the legal use of the techniques described herein, and compliance is your responsibility.

<!-- K: overview, survival, situation, rescue, lost -->
<!-- S: Be prepared, stop if lost, and think before acting. -->

This guide covers essential survival skills needed to return safely from a survival situation. It is not a substitute for professional training or experience and should only be used as a reference. This guide is intended to be practical and to the point, with the sole purpose of getting you out of a survival situation. Therefore, most bushcraft and impractical techniques for the average hiker have been left out.

If you are in a survival situation, try to stay calm and start with this chapter's "What to Do in a Survival Situation" section.

## Be prepared
<!-- K: prepare, gear, knowledge, skill -->
<!-- S: Bring a survival kit with you on all trips, and let others know your plans. Learn how to act in a survival situation and signal for help. -->

Before entering the wilderness, you should be as prepared as possible. This means you should plan your route and alternative routes, pack the proper gear, learn the necessary skills, and tell someone your plans.

### Gear

**Necessities**:
- Cell phone
- Money
- Whistle
- Spare batteries (for flashlight) and a battery pack for your phone
- Assorted bandages
- Gauze
- Surgical tape
- Safety pin or needle
- Tweezers
- Antibiotic ointment
- Sunscreen
- Insect repellent
- Prescription medications, contact lenses, and glasses
- Pain relievers (aspirin, ibuprofen, acetaminophen)
- Hand sanitizer
- Epinephrine auto-injector (if you have severe allergies)
- Asthma inhaler (if you have asthma)
- Water (enough for the duration of your trip, plus a bit extra)
- Bring a water purification method for longer trips and plan your route to include water sources.
- Water containers (ensure you have a container that you can boil water in)
- Food (enough for the duration of your trip, plus a bit extra). Some good options include:
- Nuts
- Seeds
- Dried fruit
- Jerky
- Energy bars
- Dehydrated meals (with extra water)
- Canned food (with a can opener if needed)
- Knife or multi-tool
- Bear bag or canister
- Emergency space blanket
- Poncho
- Change of clothing
- Extra socks
- Boots or sturdy shoes
- Sunglasses
- Cordage (paracord)
- Sewing kit (needle and thread)
- In colder climates:
- Insulating layers (jacket, pants, hat, gloves)
- Waterproof outer layer
- Waterproof or insulated boots
- Thermal underlayers
- Hand warmers
- For overnight stays:
- Sleeping bag
- Sleeping pad
- Tent
- Tarp
- Map
- Compass
- Flashlight or headlamp
- 7-day weather forecast

**Optional**:
- Signal mirror

See each chapter for additional gear recommendations.

### Knowledge and skills
Start by learning how to do the following:
- Follow local laws and regulations
- Act in a survival situation
- Signal for help
- Plan a trip

See each chapter for additional knowledge and skills recommendations.

### Additional reading
This guide only covers a small portion of the vast knowledge of survival and bushcraft. If you want to learn about more skills, then I recommend the following books (not affiliated):

- *Bushcraft 101* by Dave Canterbury
- *SAS Survival Handbook* by John 'Lofty' Wiseman
- *Tom Brown's Field Guide to Wilderness Survival* by Tom Brown Jr., with Brandt Morgan
- *Wilderness & Travel Medicine* by Eric A. Weiss, MD

## What to do in a survival situation
<!-- K: steps, stop, think, observe, plan, act -->
<!-- S: Stop, think, observe, plan, and act. The plan may often be to stay where you are and wait for help. -->

If you are in a survival situation, don't panic and follow these steps.

### Stop
The first and most important thing to do when lost is to stop moving. If you are in immediate danger in your current position, you can move, but otherwise, stay where you are. Use this time to calm down with deep breaths; you will get home.

### Think
Take a moment to think about your situation. Answer the following questions:
- What are your immediate needs?
- What resources do you have available?
- Did you tell someone your plans before you left? If so, when are they expecting you back?
- Which way did you come from?

### Observe
Next, observe your surroundings and assess your situation. The first thing to do is check your smartphone or GPS receiver for your location. If you have a maps app, open it and check if a map is available. You can also check for a signal to call for help. If you have no luck there, then look around and listen for signs of people, vehicles, or trails. Lastly, observe where you are and look for potential hazards or resources.

### Plan
Make a plan for your next steps. First, try to put in a call or text for help if you are not in immediate danger. What you do next is going to depend on your current situation. Here's some general advice for actions you can take, ordered by importance:

- If you are badly injured, treat your injuries.
- If it is cold, get warm through insulation, shelter, and then fire (if easily started).
- If the weather is bad, take shelter.
- If it is hot, find shade and drink water.
- If it is close to dark, set up a shelter and maybe a fire.
- Start conserving food and water, but don't let yourself get thirsty.
- If you have a minor injury, treat it.
- Record your current location in your phone or GPS; if you have a bright piece of clothing, tie it to a tree where you can see it.
- If you are out of water or just about to run out, find a water source and purify it.
- Signal for help using the techniques later in this chapter. Do this often for the best odds of being found.
- Try to determine your location using a map.
- Check for signs of the trail nearby, but always keep your initial location in sight.
- Identify nearby points of interest that you might be able to find on a map or hike to later if needed.
- If you are out of food, start thinking about how you will forage or catch something to eat. You can survive for a while without food but will weaken over time.
- If you have been out for several days to a week, you may need to consider hiking out. Leave a sign that you were here and in which direction you went, such as something tied to a tree and an arrow made of natural materials.

In summary, the priority is to treat severe injuries, seek shelter, signal for help, find water, build a fire (to stay warm and boil water), determine your location, check for ways out, find food, and last and only if you've been out there for a long time, hike out.

Your plan should adapt to your situation as it changes. Reevaluate often and stay hopeful that you will be found.

### Act
Once you have a plan, act on it. If at any point you feel unsafe, nervous, unsure, or your situation changes, then stop and reassess.

## Planning a trip
<!-- K: plan, trip -->
<!-- S: Research the terrain, weather, and wildlife before leaving. Plan a route on a map and bring the necessary supplies. Share this plan with someone you trust. -->

Before going into the wilderness, have a plan that you can stick to. Research the terrain, weather conditions, wildlife, and plants you might encounter. Check local regulations and any permits you may need. Use an up-to-date map to plan your route and some alternative routes if the trails are impassable. Also, look up trail conditions and the weather forecast for your trip.

Once you have a trip planned out, pack the necessary gear and supplies and check all of it to ensure it is functional. You should share your plan with a trusted person, including the routes, who you are going with, when you will be back, and when you will contact them. If you don't have someone to whom you can tell these plans, leave a note with this information in a very visible place in your home. While you are hiking, stick to your route and avoid unnecessary risks.

## Signaling for help
<!-- K: signal, help, contact, call, text, phone, whistle, mirror, smoke, flare, flashlight, ground-to-air -->
<!-- S: Try your cell phone; it may be able to make emergency calls. Otherwise, use a whistle, signal mirror, smoke, flares, flashlight, or ground-to-air signals to attract attention. -->

Signaling for help will increase your odds of being found. You should do this often, even if you don't think anyone is nearby or can hear you.

### Cell phone
Many phones can call emergency services even without a signal from your carrier. If you can't make a call, try sending a text message. Check your phone periodically to see if you have a signal, but otherwise, keep it off or in airplane mode to conserve battery. You may get a better signal by moving to higher ground or an open area.

### Whistle
Three short blasts are the universal signal for help. You may want to cover your ears when using the whistle at full volume.

If you don't have a whistle, you can use your fingers, but it will likely take practice.

1. Clean your fingers using hand sanitizer or soap and water.
2. Create a V-shape by touching your index finger and thumb together. Some may prefer to use the index and middle fingers of both hands to form a larger V-shape.
3. Press the tip of your tongue into the top of your mouth.
4. Curl your lips over your teeth.
5. Put the two fingers into your mouth and press on the tip of your tongue.
6. Seal your lips around your fingers and blow to create a whistle.

### Signal mirror
Hold the mirror with one hand and extend your other arm in front of you with your fingers in a V-shape and the target between your fingers. Reflect sunlight onto your fingers and slowly move the mirror up and down to flash sunlight at the potential rescuers. You can use a phone screen as a signal mirror, but it will be nowhere near as effective as an actual mirror and should be combined with another signal, such as smoke or a ground-to-air signal.

### Smoke
Smoke can attract attention during the day. Burning green vegetation can create a lot of smoke, but be sure to do this safely. A fire at night can also be used to attract attention.

### Flares
Flares are best seen at night or in low-visibility conditions. Follow the instructions on the flare packaging and be aware of any legal restrictions on their use.

### Flashlight
At night, a flashlight can be used to signal for help. Use the international distress signal, SOS, which is three short flashes, three long flashes, and three short flashes. If you don't remember the SOS signal, flash the light repeatedly in groups of three. Aim it in the direction of aircraft or other potential rescuers.

### Ground-to-air signals
Ground-to-air signals are large markers you create on the ground to communicate with aircraft. Use rocks, logs, or other materials to create a large "V" (means you require assistance) or an "X" (means you require medical assistance). Use contrasting or artificial colors to make the signal more visible.


## Disclaimer
This guide is provided for informational purposes only, and neither the author, publisher, nor any contributors guarantee its accuracy or suitability for any purpose. By using this guide, you acknowledge that outdoor activities involve risks, and you do so at your own risk, agreeing to hold harmless and indemnify the author, publisher, and any contributors from any claims or damages arising from your use of this guide. Always consult professionals for advice specific to your situation, as this guide does not substitute for professional guidance. Furthermore, be aware that local laws and regulations may affect the legal use of the techniques described herein, and compliance is your responsibility.

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