2. Trail Sense
3. English

<!-- K: food, eat, meal, hunger, hungry, forage, identify, edible, inedible -->
<!-- S: Ration food and forage when there's none left. -->

This chapter covers how to find and prepare food in a survival situation.

## Be prepared
<!-- K: prepare, gear, knowledge, skill, nuts, seeds, dried, fruit, jerky, energy, bar, mre, can, knife, multitool, multi-tool, bag, canister, utensil, stove, fuel -->
<!-- S: Bring extra food. Learn how to find food and cook in the wilderness. -->

### Gear

**Necessities**:
- Food (enough for the duration of your trip, plus a bit extra). Some good options include:
- Nuts
- Seeds
- Dried fruit
- Jerky
- Energy bars
- Dehydrated meals (with extra water)
- Canned food (with a can opener if needed)
- Knife or multi-tool
- Bear bag or canister

**Optional**:
- Cooking pot or container
- Utensils (a spork is a good option)
- Cooking stove and fuel

### Knowledge and skills
Start by learning how to do the following:
- Plan your meals for a trip.
- Cook food by boiling or roasting over a fire.
- Use a bear bag or canister to protect your food.

Once you have mastered these skills, you should learn how to do the following:
- Identify edible plants and mushrooms.
- Find and catch insects, shellfish, crustaceans, fish, and other animals.
- Preserve food.
- Make traps.

## Food essentials
<!-- K: nutrition, caloric, calorie, carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamin, mineral, storage, starvation, ration -->
<!-- S: You need around 2,000 calories per day, but you can ration your food to make it last longer. You should properly store your food to avoid spoilage. -->

### Caloric and nutritional needs
The average person needs around 2,000 calories per day. You should aim to balance carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals in your diet.

- **Carbohydrates**: Provide an immediate source of energy and are found in grains, fruits, and vegetables. Aim for 45–65% of your daily caloric intake.
- **Fats**: Provide long-term energy and are used in essential bodily functions. They are found in meats, oils, nuts, and seeds. Aim for 20–35% of your daily caloric intake.
- **Proteins**: Build and repair tissues and are found in meats, legumes, nuts, and seeds.
- **Vitamins and minerals**: Essential for overall health and are found in most foods, but a varied diet is necessary to ensure you get all the necessary nutrients.

### Storage

Food should be stored in airtight containers to prevent spoilage and contamination. Do not pack foods that spoil quickly or require refrigeration.

### Rationing

If you are in a survival situation, you may need to ration your food to make it last longer. Eat two-thirds of your food in the first half of your survival situation (about 2-3 days after your expected return date), and the remaining third in the days that follow. Eating your food will give you the energy you need to construct a shelter and plan.

### Starvation

Starvation occurs when the body does not receive enough nutrients to function properly. Symptoms include:
- Loss of body fat.
- Difficulty breathing.
- Lower body temperature.
- Reduced muscle mass.
- Fatigue.
- Longer healing time for wounds and illnesses.

## Plants and mushrooms
<!-- K: plant, mushroom, seaweed, weeds, green, sap, fungus, forage, poison, toxic, leach, berries -->
<!-- S: Only eat plants you can confidently identity as safe and don't eat any mushrooms. Aggregate berries, like raspberries and blackberries, are generally safe. -->

Only eat wild plants that you can positively identify as safe. Before your trip, it's wise to study local plants through guidebooks or plant identification cards.

If you are unable to identify plants, just eat bugs; most plants don't have a lot of calories.

### Foraging

Key considerations when choosing plants include:

- Aggregate berries are generally edible. These include raspberries and blackberries.
- Plants in or near contaminated water must be washed and cooked to avoid consuming harmful bacteria or chemicals.
- Even within the same species, plants can vary in toxicity due to environmental factors.
- If you are sensitive to allergens like poison ivy, steer clear of similar plants such as mangoes or cashews, which can cause similar reactions.
- Some plants are more nutritious than others. For example, nuts and seeds are high in calories and fats, while leafy greens are high in vitamins and minerals.
- Some plants are fine for animals but toxic to humans.
- Seaweed washed ashore may be spoiled or decayed.
- Some plants or nuts, such as acorns, should be boiled a few times before eating to leach out toxins.
- **Avoid the following**:
- Mushrooms.
- Roadside plants.
- Plants with umbrella-shaped flowers.
- Plants with milky sap.
- Plants with shiny leaves.
- Plants with white, yellow, or red berries.
- Beans, bulbs, or seeds inside pods.
- Plants with a pungent odor.
- Plants with an almond scent in the leaves or woody parts.
- Plants with a bitter or soapy taste.
- Plants with thorns, fine hairs, or spines.
- Plants that resemble dill, carrot, parsnip, or parsley.
- Plants with three-leaved growth patterns.
- Plants with signs of mildew, fungus, or spoilage.

### Preparation

Wash plants, then cut them into usable pieces. Some plants can be eaten raw, while others need to be cooked.

## Insects
<!-- K: insect, bug, grub, worm, ant, termite, locust, grasshopper, cricket, dragonfly, bait -->
<!-- S: Most insects can be eaten when cooked or used as fishing bait. -->

Insects are a good source of protein but need to be gathered in large numbers to provide a substantial meal. If you don't want to eat insects, you can use them as bait for fishing or trapping.

### Collection

Good places to find insects include rotting logs, under rocks, and in grassy fields.

Do not eat the following insects:
- Biting or stinging insects.
- Hairy or brightly colored insects.
- Insects with a pungent odor.
- Hairy caterpillars.
- Spiders.
- Ticks.
- Flies.
- Mosquitoes.

Common edible insects include:
- Ants and termites.
- Locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets.
- Dragonflies.
- Worms and grubs.

Many flying insects can be attracted to a light source at night, making them easier to catch.

### Preparation

Remove the following parts before eating insects:
- Stingers.
- Legs.
- Wings.
- Head.

Cook all insects using any of the cooking techniques in this chapter.

Worms can be placed in water for 15 minutes to purge their digestive tracts. After purging, they should be cooked before eating.

## Shellfish and crustaceans
<!-- K: shellfish, crustacean, clam, mussel, snail, limpet, crayfish, lobster, crab, shrimp, shell, bait, basket, trap, seafood, algae, tide, coastal, coast -->
<!-- S: Many shellfish and crustaceans are found along the shoreline and most can be eaten when cooked. -->

Shellfish and crustaceans are a good source of protein and can be found in both freshwater and saltwater. They are relatively easy to catch, so they make a good survival food source.

### Collection

Search shallow waters, tide pools, and rocky areas for shellfish and crustaceans. Snails and limpets can often be found attached to rocks, which may be easier to access during low tide.

Crayfish, lobsters, and crabs can be found under and around stones, in soft mud or sand, and may be more active at night. You can catch them using a variety of techniques:

- Attach bait onto a line and lower it into the water. Once it grabs the bait, pull it to shore.
- For crabs, leave bait near the shoreline and catch them by hand or using a spear.
- Use a fish basket trap with bait in it (see the Fish section below).

**Caution**

- Mussels may be poisonous in tropical waters during the summer.
- If a red tide occurred within three days, do not eat fish or shellfish.
- Do not eat shellfish covered by water during high tide.

### Preparation

Fully cook to kill parasites. Shellfish can be cooked in their shells.

## Fish
<!-- K: fish, hook, line, pole, bait, basket, trap, funnel, kill, seafood, meat -->
<!-- S: Most fish are edible once cooked, but will require some fishing gear. -->

If you are in a longer-term survival situation or have access to fishing gear, fish can be a good source of protein and nutrients.

### Fishing

Fish are most active:
- Before a storm.
- Near rocks or logs.
- Under overhanging brush.

There are no poisonous freshwater fish, but there are some poisonous saltwater fish. Most fish are edible.

**Hooks**

Hooks with barbs are more effective than barbless hooks at keeping fish on the line.

You can craft a hook if needed:

- Wooden hooks: Cut a piece of hardwood, put a notch in one end and secure a sharp object into the notch using cordage.
- Gorge hooks: Carve a piece of wood or bone into the shape shown in the picture below. Tie a line to the middle of the hook and place into bait. When the fish swallows the bait, the hook will lodge in its throat - you do not need to pull the line to set the hook.
- Other hooks: You can use metal wire or thorns as hooks. See the picture below.


**Lines**

If you do not have fishing line, you can make it from plant fibers, inner strands of paracord (using a bend knot to join them together), or other strong cordage.

**Poles**

If you do not have a fishing pole, you can make one from a stick, bamboo, or other materials. You can also wrap the line around a short stick and use it as a hand line.

**Bait**

For best results, bait the hooks using insects, worms, or pieces of food.

**Traps**

You can construct a basket fish trap by weaving together branches or other materials. Bait the trap with food and place it in the water. Check it every few hours. This can also be used to catch crustaceans.

Alternatively, use a funnel fish trap by placing sticks into a V-shape with a retaining area at the end. Fish swim into the trap and are unable to find their way out. In tidal areas, you can set up a wall of stones during low tide; as the tide recedes, fish may get trapped behind the wall.


### Preparation

1. Kill the fish by hitting it on the head with a club or rock. Use a hard, quick blow. You can then use a knife to cut the gills or pierce the brain to ensure the fish is dead.
2. Remove scales by scraping them off with a knife (tail to head).
3. Remove entrails by cutting the belly open and pulling them out. You can also cut off the head and tail to make this easier.
4. Cut into usable pieces or fillet the fish. If it is a small fish, you can also just cook it whole.
5. Cook the fish.

## Other animals
<!-- K: animal, hunt, bow, trap, deadfall, bird, reptile, amphibian, frog, snake, mammal, skin, kill, meat, butcher, skin -->
<!-- S: Hunting or trapping can be energy consuming and difficult without proper tools. -->

In a survival situation, it's best to focus on easier-to-catch animals like insects, shellfish, crustaceans, and fish. But if you have the means to catch other animals, they can provide a good source of protein and nutrients.

### Hunting

**Firearms and bows**

If you have a firearm or bow with you, aim for the vital organs to ensure a quick kill. It is unlikely you will be able to construct a survival bow that is effective for hunting.

**Clubs**

A club can be as simple as a stick with a heavy end. This can be used to kill fish or other small animals with a quick, forceful blow to the head.

**Spears**

A spear can be made by sharpening a stick and optionally hardening the tip in a fire. Unless you have experience, it's best to stab with the spear instead of throwing it. To make it easier to hit your target, you can construct multiple spear points if you use a forked branch.

**Throwing sticks and rocks**

In a pinch, you can throw a heavy stick or rock to kill or stun small animals. Aim for the head to ensure a quick kill.

### Trapping

Traps allow for the passive capture of small animals. They can be set up and left alone while you perform other tasks. Check them every few hours.

Look for signs of animal activity like tracks, droppings, or chewed vegetation. Set up traps in areas where animals are likely to pass through. You can construct funnels or walls to guide animals into them.

Baiting the traps can increase their effectiveness. Use food native to the area that animals are likely to eat. Smoking the traps can help mask your scent.

**Deadfalls**

Deadfall traps are good for catching small animals. They work by dropping a heavy object on the animal when it triggers the trap. The trigger mechanism can be made from a stick and a bait stick. When the animal takes the bait, the trigger releases, causing the heavy object to fall.

Place one or more of these traps near your shelter to possibly catch mice.



### Birds

Birds are most easily caught at night when roosting or you can eat eggs from nests. Use a club, throwing stick, or rock to kill or stun the bird.

To prepare a bird for cooking:

1. Pluck feathers. You can place the bird in boiling water to make this easier. Optionally, you can skin the bird instead, but that removes some of the fat.
2. Cut open the body cavity and remove the entrails.
3. For larger birds, cut off the feet and separate the bird into usable pieces along the joints.
4. Cook the bird.

**Notes**:

- Sea birds should be skinned rather than plucked to remove oil glands.
- Scavenger birds, such as vultures, should be boiled for at least 20 minutes to kill parasites.

### Reptiles and amphibians

Reptiles and amphibians are easier to catch than mammals and birds. They can be found moving across open ground. Use a gig or pin them down with a stick behind the head.

Frogs can be caught near water sources using a gig.

Traps with bait may also be effective for catching reptiles and amphibians.

Always wash your hands after handling reptiles and amphibians, as they can carry salmonella. Cook the meat thoroughly.

**Do not eat the following**:
- Box turtles.
- Hawksbill turtles.
- Brightly colored frogs.
- Frogs with an X on their back.
- Tree frogs.
- Toads.
- Salamanders.
- Snakes - edible, but may be dangerous to catch.
- If you kill a snake, cut off and bury its head before cleaning. Never touch the head with your hands, use sticks instead.

### Small mammals

Small mammals can be caught using traps. They can also be caught using a club, throwing stick, or rock.

To prepare a small mammal for cooking:

1. Make cuts down the insides of the back legs.
2. Pull the skin off the body like a glove. You'll need to sever the head and front feet to remove the skin.
3. Cut open the abdominal cavity and remove the entrails. Be careful not to puncture the intestines.

This guide does not cover the preparation of large mammals, as they are difficult to catch and require a lot of energy to process.

## Cooking
<!-- K: cook, boil, roast, bake, utensil, container, stove -->
<!-- S: You should boil, roast, or bake most foods to avoid getting sick. This will require you to start fire or have a portable stove. -->

Do not try to preserve food you catch, just cook and eat it.

### Stoves
Portable stoves are a convenient way to cook food. They can be fueled by wood, alcohol, or gas. Follow the manufacturer's instructions for use.

Be sure to let the stove cool down before packing it away.

### Boiling

Boiling preserves the most nutrients in food and is the safest method of cooking. You can use a metal container filled with water suspended over a fire or placed onto hot coals. See the Water chapter for more information on boiling water.

### Roasting

Roasting is a quick and easy method of cooking, but you will get fewer nutrients from the food. You can roast food on a stick over a fire or place it on hot coals.

### Baking

You can wrap food in leaves or clay and place it in the coals of a fire to bake it. This method is slower than roasting but preserves more nutrients. Do not skin fish or birds packed with clay, as the skin will stick to the clay and can be removed after cooking.

### Utensils
If you are packing utensils, a spork is a good option. Otherwise, you can use a stick or your hands to handle food. Be sure to wash your hands before eating.

## Protection
<!-- K: protect, bear, bag, canister, box -->
<!-- S: Use bear bags or canisters to prevent animals from stealing your food. -->

You may need to protect your food from animals. Here are some methods to keep your food safe:

### Bear bags

A bear bag is a bag of food hoisted into a tree to keep it out of reach of bears and other animals.

1. Place food in a bag.
2. Tie a rope to the bag.
3. Throw the rope over a high branch and hoist the bag up.
4. Tie the rope to a tree to keep the bag elevated.

### Bear canisters

A bear canister is a hard plastic container used to store food. It is bear-proof and can be left on the ground.

Some campsites may provide a bear box, which is a large metal box used to store food.

## Craft: Tongs
<!-- K: tongs, craft -->
<!-- S: You can make tongs from green wood. -->

**Resources**
- Green wood

**Instructions**
1. Cut a length of green wood.
2. Split the wood down the middle to create a flat surface.
3. Optionally, carve a small notch in the center of the stick to allow it to bend more easily.
4. Bend the wood in half to create tongs.

<!-- K: food, eat, meal, hunger, hungry, forage, identify, edible, inedible -->
<!-- S: Ration food and forage when there's none left. -->

This chapter covers how to find and prepare food in a survival situation.

## Be prepared
<!-- K: prepare, gear, knowledge, skill, nuts, seeds, dried, fruit, jerky, energy, bar, mre, can, knife, multitool, multi-tool, bag, canister, utensil, stove, fuel -->
<!-- S: Bring extra food. Learn how to find food and cook in the wilderness. -->

### Gear

**Necessities**:
- Food (enough for the duration of your trip, plus a bit extra). Some good options include:
- Nuts
- Seeds
- Dried fruit
- Jerky
- Energy bars
- Dehydrated meals (with extra water)
- Canned food (with a can opener if needed)
- Knife or multi-tool
- Bear bag or canister

**Optional**:
- Cooking pot or container
- Utensils (a spork is a good option)
- Cooking stove and fuel

### Knowledge and skills
Start by learning how to do the following:
- Plan your meals for a trip.
- Cook food by boiling or roasting over a fire.
- Use a bear bag or canister to protect your food.

Once you have mastered these skills, you should learn how to do the following:
- Identify edible plants and mushrooms.
- Find and catch insects, shellfish, crustaceans, fish, and other animals.
- Preserve food.
- Make traps.

## Food essentials
<!-- K: nutrition, caloric, calorie, carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamin, mineral, storage, starvation, ration -->
<!-- S: You need around 2,000 calories per day, but you can ration your food to make it last longer. You should properly store your food to avoid spoilage. -->

### Caloric and nutritional needs
The average person needs around 2,000 calories per day. You should aim to balance carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals in your diet.

- **Carbohydrates**: Provide an immediate source of energy and are found in grains, fruits, and vegetables. Aim for 45–65% of your daily caloric intake.
- **Fats**: Provide long-term energy and are used in essential bodily functions. They are found in meats, oils, nuts, and seeds. Aim for 20–35% of your daily caloric intake.
- **Proteins**: Build and repair tissues and are found in meats, legumes, nuts, and seeds.
- **Vitamins and minerals**: Essential for overall health and are found in most foods, but a varied diet is necessary to ensure you get all the necessary nutrients.

### Storage

Food should be stored in airtight containers to prevent spoilage and contamination. Do not pack foods that spoil quickly or require refrigeration.

### Rationing

If you are in a survival situation, you may need to ration your food to make it last longer. Eat two-thirds of your food in the first half of your survival situation (about 2-3 days after your expected return date), and the remaining third in the days that follow. Eating your food will give you the energy you need to construct a shelter and plan.

### Starvation

Starvation occurs when the body does not receive enough nutrients to function properly. Symptoms include:
- Loss of body fat.
- Difficulty breathing.
- Lower body temperature.
- Reduced muscle mass.
- Fatigue.
- Longer healing time for wounds and illnesses.

## Plants and mushrooms
<!-- K: plant, mushroom, seaweed, weeds, green, sap, fungus, forage, poison, toxic, leach, berries -->
<!-- S: Only eat plants you can confidently identity as safe and don't eat any mushrooms. Aggregate berries, like raspberries and blackberries, are generally safe. -->

Only eat wild plants that you can positively identify as safe. Before your trip, it's wise to study local plants through guidebooks or plant identification cards.

If you are unable to identify plants, just eat bugs; most plants don't have a lot of calories.

### Foraging

Key considerations when choosing plants include:

- Aggregate berries are generally edible. These include raspberries and blackberries.
- Plants in or near contaminated water must be washed and cooked to avoid consuming harmful bacteria or chemicals.
- Even within the same species, plants can vary in toxicity due to environmental factors.
- If you are sensitive to allergens like poison ivy, steer clear of similar plants such as mangoes or cashews, which can cause similar reactions.
- Some plants are more nutritious than others. For example, nuts and seeds are high in calories and fats, while leafy greens are high in vitamins and minerals.
- Some plants are fine for animals but toxic to humans.
- Seaweed washed ashore may be spoiled or decayed.
- Some plants or nuts, such as acorns, should be boiled a few times before eating to leach out toxins.
- **Avoid the following**:
- Mushrooms.
- Roadside plants.
- Plants with umbrella-shaped flowers.
- Plants with milky sap.
- Plants with shiny leaves.
- Plants with white, yellow, or red berries.
- Beans, bulbs, or seeds inside pods.
- Plants with a pungent odor.
- Plants with an almond scent in the leaves or woody parts.
- Plants with a bitter or soapy taste.
- Plants with thorns, fine hairs, or spines.
- Plants that resemble dill, carrot, parsnip, or parsley.
- Plants with three-leaved growth patterns.
- Plants with signs of mildew, fungus, or spoilage.

### Preparation

Wash plants, then cut them into usable pieces. Some plants can be eaten raw, while others need to be cooked.

## Insects
<!-- K: insect, bug, grub, worm, ant, termite, locust, grasshopper, cricket, dragonfly, bait -->
<!-- S: Most insects can be eaten when cooked or used as fishing bait. -->

Insects are a good source of protein but need to be gathered in large numbers to provide a substantial meal. If you don't want to eat insects, you can use them as bait for fishing or trapping.

### Collection

Good places to find insects include rotting logs, under rocks, and in grassy fields.

Do not eat the following insects:
- Biting or stinging insects.
- Hairy or brightly colored insects.
- Insects with a pungent odor.
- Hairy caterpillars.
- Spiders.
- Ticks.
- Flies.
- Mosquitoes.

Common edible insects include:
- Ants and termites.
- Locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets.
- Dragonflies.
- Worms and grubs.

Many flying insects can be attracted to a light source at night, making them easier to catch.

### Preparation

Remove the following parts before eating insects:
- Stingers.
- Legs.
- Wings.
- Head.

Cook all insects using any of the cooking techniques in this chapter.

Worms can be placed in water for 15 minutes to purge their digestive tracts. After purging, they should be cooked before eating.

## Shellfish and crustaceans
<!-- K: shellfish, crustacean, clam, mussel, snail, limpet, crayfish, lobster, crab, shrimp, shell, bait, basket, trap, seafood, algae, tide, coastal, coast -->
<!-- S: Many shellfish and crustaceans are found along the shoreline and most can be eaten when cooked. -->

Shellfish and crustaceans are a good source of protein and can be found in both freshwater and saltwater. They are relatively easy to catch, so they make a good survival food source.

### Collection

Search shallow waters, tide pools, and rocky areas for shellfish and crustaceans. Snails and limpets can often be found attached to rocks, which may be easier to access during low tide.

In freshwaCrayfish, lobsters, crayfishand crabs can be locatefound under and around stones, in streams or in soft mud during the daytime. You can aoft mud or sand, and may be more active at night. You can catch them using a variety of techniques:

- Attach bait onto a stringline and lower it into the water to attract crayfish. Once it grabs the bait, pull it to shore.

In saltwater, lobsters, crabs, and shrimp can be found near the water's edge or in shallow water. Crabs will come to shore if you leave bait at the water's edge, where they can be easily caught. Lobsters and crabs are more active at night, and shrimp are attracted to light- For crabs, leave bait near the shoreline and catch them by hand or using a spear.
- Use a fish basket trap with bait in it (see the Fish section below).

**Caution**:
- Mussels may be poisonous in tropical waters during the summer. - If a red tide occurred within three days, do not eat fish or shellfish. - Do not eat shellfish covered by water during high tide.

### Trapping

A basket fish trap can be used to catch crustaceans. Bait the trap with food and place it in the water. Check the trap every few hours to see if you have caught anything.


For details on how to construct this trap, see the Fish section of this chapter.

### Preparation

Fully cook to kill parasites. Shellfish can be cooked in their shells.

## Fish
<!-- K: fish, hook, line, pole, bait, basket, trap, funnel, kill, seafood, meat -->
<!-- S: Most fish are edible once cooked, but will require some fishing gear. -->

If you are in a longer-term survival situation or have access to fishing gear, fish can be a good source of protein and nutrients.

### Fishing

Fish are most active:
- Before a storm.
- Near rocks or logs.
- Under overhanging brush.

There are no poisonous freshwater fish, but there are some poisonous saltwater fish. Most fish are edible.

**Hooks**

Hooks with barbs are more effective than barbless hooks at keeping fish on the line.

You can craft a hook if needed:

- Wooden hooks: Cut a piece of hardwood, put a notch in one end and secure a sharp object into the notch using cordage.
- Gorge hooks: Carve a piece of wood or bone into the shape shown in the picture below. Tie a line to the middle of the hook and place into bait. When the fish swallows the bait, the hook will lodge in its throat - you do not need to pull the line to set the hook.
- Other hooks: You can use metal wire or thorns as hooks. See the picture below.


**Lines**

If you do not have fishing line, you can make it from plant fibers, inner strands of paracord (using a bend knot to join them together), or other strong cordage.

**Poles**

If you do not have a fishing pole, you can make one from a stick, bamboo, or other materials. You can also wrap the line around a short stick and use it as a hand line.

**Bait**

For best results, bait the hooks using insects, worms, or pieces of food.

**Traps**

You can construct a basket fish trap by weaving together branches or other materials. Bait the trap with food and place it in the water. Check it every few hours. This can also be used to catch crustaceans.

Alternatively, use a funnel fish trap by placing sticks into a V-shape with a retaining area at the end. Fish swim into the trap and are unable to find their way out. In tidal areas, you can set up a wall of stones during low tide; as the tide recedes, fish may get trapped behind the wall.


### Preparation

1. Kill the fish by hitting it on the head with a club or rock. Use a hard, quick blow. You can then use a knife to cut the gills or pierce the brain to ensure the fish is dead.
2. Remove scales by scraping them off with a knife (tail to head).
3. Remove entrails by cutting the belly open and pulling them out. You can also cut off the head and tail to make this easier.
4. Cut into usable pieces or fillet the fish. If it is a small fish, you can also just cook it whole.
5. Cook the fish.

## Other animals
<!-- K: animal, hunt, bow, trap, deadfall, bird, reptile, amphibian, frog, snake, mammal, skin, kill, meat, butcher, skin -->
<!-- S: Hunting or trapping can be energy consuming and difficult without proper tools. -->

In a survival situation, it's best to focus on easier-to-catch animals like insects, shellfish, crustaceans, and fish. But if you have the means to catch other animals, they can provide a good source of protein and nutrients.

### Hunting

**Firearms and bows**

If you have a firearm or bow with you, aim for the vital organs to ensure a quick kill. It is unlikely you will be able to construct a survival bow that is effective for hunting.

**Clubs**

A club can be as simple as a stick with a heavy end. This can be used to kill fish or other small animals with a quick, forceful blow to the head.

**Spears**

A spear can be made by sharpening a stick and optionally hardening the tip in a fire. Unless you have experience, it's best to stab with the spear instead of throwing it. To make it easier to hit your target, you can construct multiple spear points if you use a forked branch.

**Throwing sticks and rocks**

In a pinch, you can throw a heavy stick or rock to kill or stun small animals. Aim for the head to ensure a quick kill.

### Trapping

Traps allow for the passive capture of small animals. They can be set up and left alone while you perform other tasks. Check them every few hours.

Look for signs of animal activity like tracks, droppings, or chewed vegetation. Set up traps in areas where animals are likely to pass through. You can construct funnels or walls to guide animals into them.

Baiting the traps can increase their effectiveness. Use food native to the area that animals are likely to eat. Smoking the traps can help mask your scent.

**Deadfalls**

Deadfall traps are good for catching small animals. They work by dropping a heavy object on the animal when it triggers the trap. The trigger mechanism can be made from a stick and a bait stick. When the animal takes the bait, the trigger releases, causing the heavy object to fall.

Examples of deadfall traps:Place one or more of these traps near your shelter to possibly catch mice.



Stop cuts are used to prevent wood from splitting when you are cutting it. To make a stop cut, make a small cut perpendicular to the grain of the wood where you want to stop the cut. This cut should be about 1/3 of the way through the wood. You can baton the knife to form a stop cut by placing the knife where you want to make the cut and hitting it with a stick - only do this on full tang knives.

### Birds

Birds are most easily caught at night when roosting or you can eat eggs from nests. Use a club, throwing stick, or rock to kill or stun the bird.

To prepare a bird for cooking:

1. Pluck feathers. You can place the bird in boiling water to make this easier. Optionally, you can skin the bird instead, but that removes some of the fat.
2. Cut open the body cavity and remove the entrails.
3. For larger birds, cut off the feet and separate the bird into usable pieces along the joints.
4. Cook the bird.

**Notes**:

- Sea birds should be skinned rather than plucked to remove oil glands.
- Scavenger birds, such as vultures, should be boiled for at least 20 minutes to kill parasites.

### Reptiles and amphibians

Reptiles and amphibians are easier to catch than mammals and birds. They can be found moving across open ground. Use a gig or pin them down with a stick behind the head.

Frogs can be caught near water sources using a gig.

Traps with bait may also be effective for catching reptiles and amphibians.

Always wash your hands after handling reptiles and amphibians, as they can carry salmonella. Cook the meat thoroughly.

**Do not eat the following**:
- Box turtles.
- Hawksbill turtles.
- Brightly colored frogs.
- Frogs with an X on their back.
- Tree frogs.
- Toads.
- Salamanders.
- Snakes - edible, but may be dangerous to catch.
- If you kill a snake, cut off and bury its head before cleaning. Never touch the head with your hands, use sticks instead.

### Small mammals

Small mammals can be caught using traps. They can also be caught using a club, throwing stick, or rock.

To prepare a small mammal for cooking:

1. Make cuts down the insides of the back legs.
2. Pull the skin off the body like a glove. You'll need to sever the head and front feet to remove the skin.
3. Cut open the abdominal cavity and remove the entrails. Be careful not to puncture the intestines.

This guide does not cover the preparation of large mammals, as they are difficult to catch and require a lot of energy to process.

## Cooking
<!-- K: cook, boil, roast, bake, utensil, container, stove -->
<!-- S: You should boil, roast, or bake most foods to avoid getting sick. This will require you to start fire or have a portable stove. -->

Do not try to preserve food you catch, just cook and eat it.

### Stoves
Portable stoves are a convenient way to cook food. They can be fueled by wood, alcohol, or gas. Follow the manufacturer's instructions for use.

Be sure to let the stove cool down before packing it away.

### Boiling

Boiling preserves the most nutrients in food and is the safest method of cooking. You can use a metal container filled with water suspended over a fire or placed onto hot coals. See the Water chapter for more information on boiling water.

### Roasting

Roasting is a quick and easy method of cooking, but you will get fewer nutrients from the food. You can roast food on a stick over a fire or place it on hot coals.

### Baking

You can wrap food in leaves or clay and place it in the coals of a fire to bake it. This method is slower than roasting but preserves more nutrients. Do not skin fish or birds packed with clay, as the skin will stick to the clay and can be removed after cooking.

### Utensils
If you are packing utensils, a spork is a good option. Otherwise, you can use a stick or your hands to handle food. Be sure to wash your hands before eating.

## Protection
<!-- K: protect, bear, bag, canister, box -->
<!-- S: Use bear bags or canisters to prevent animals from stealing your food. -->

You may need to protect your food from animals. Here are some methods to keep your food safe:

### Bear bags

A bear bag is a bag of food hoisted into a tree to keep it out of reach of bears and other animals.

1. Place food in a bag.
2. Tie a rope to the bag.
3. Throw the rope over a high branch and hoist the bag up.
4. Tie the rope to a tree to keep the bag elevated.

### Bear canisters

A bear canister is a hard plastic container used to store food. It is bear-proof and can be left on the ground.

Some campsites may provide a bear box, which is a large metal box used to store food.

## Craft: Tongs
<!-- K: tongs, craft -->
<!-- S: You can make tongs from green wood. -->

**Resources**
- Green wood

**Instructions**
1. Cut a length of green wood.
2. Split the wood down the middle to create a flat surface.
3. Optionally, carve a small notch in the center of the stick to allow it to bend more easily.
4. Bend the wood in half to create tongs.

<!-- K: fire, flame, light, heat, warm, burn -->
<!-- S: Build and maintain a fire. -->

This chapter covers how to make a fire.

## Be prepared
<!-- K: prepare, gear, knowledge, skill, starter, matches, lighter, steel, ferro, ferrocerium, tinder -->
<!-- S: Bring a fire starter. Learn how to build and maintain a fire. -->

### Gear
**Necessities**:
- Fire starter (waterproof matches, lighters, or fire steel - carry at least two different types)

**Optional**:
- Tinder (dryer lint, cotton balls, or commercial fire starters)

### Knowledge and skills
Start by learning how to do the following:
- Build a fire using multiple fire starters (matches, lighters, fire steel).
- Gather and prepare tinder, kindling, and fuel.
- Maintain a fire.
- Extinguish a fire.
- Build a fire in wet conditions.

Once you have mastered these skills, you should learn how to do the following:
- Protect a fire from wind and rain.
- Construct and use a bow drill.
- Make charcoal.

## Preparing a fire site
<!-- K: build, gather, prepare, tinder, kindling, fuel, location, fatwood -->
<!-- S: Choose a flat, dry area protected from the wind. Gather tinder, kindling, and fuel. -->

- Choose a flat, dry area protected from the wind, close to your shelter and a fuel supply.
- Clear the ground to expose soil and remove any flammable materials to prevent unintended spreading.
- In snowy conditions, use a platform of logs to build the fire on.
- If possible, line the fire pit with dry rocks, dirt, or sand to prevent underground fires. Do not construct a fire pit over a root system or peat.
- Some areas may ban the construction of fires, so be aware of local laws and regulations.

### Gathering materials

- **Tinder**: Dry, fine materials that catch fire easily. You can dry out damp tinder by placing it near your body or in your sleeping bag.
- Shredded inner bark (birch, cedar, chestnut, red elm)
- Fine wood scrapings or shavings
- Fatwood: Resin-rich wood from pine trees, typically found at the base of dead branches.
- Dry grass, leaves, or pine needles
- Dry powdered sap from pine trees
- Crushed fibers from dead plants
- Seed down (cattail, milkweed, thistle)
- Feather sticks (wood shavings attached to a stick)
- Commercial fire starters
- Cotton balls (preferably soaked in petroleum jelly)
- Lint
- Paper
- Tinder fungus or chaga
- **Kindling**: Small sticks and twigs that catch fire from the tinder and help build the flame.
- Sticks and twigs (pencil to finger thickness)
- Thinly split wood
- Plastics, such as straws or spoons
- Wood soaked in a flammable liquid such as bug spray (use caution)
- **Fuel**: Larger pieces of wood that will burn longer and sustain your fire.
- Prefer fallen wood that you can break by hand
- To break a larger piece of wood, insert it between two live trees at the point you want to break it and push it to the side until it snaps


## Starting a fire
<!-- K: start, light, ignite, matches, lighters, steel, ferro, ferrocerium, magnesium, flint, bow-drill, hand-drill, drill, magnifying, lens, tepee, structure -->
<!-- S: If you have a fire starter, use it. You can improvise if required, but it will be more difficult and requires practice. -->

1. Have a sufficient supply of tinder, kindling, and fuel nearby.
2. Form the tinder into a small bundle or nest and place it on the ground.
3. Lean a few pieces of kindling against the tinder in a tepee shape.
4. Light the tinder.
5. Carefully add kindling to the fire, being careful not to smother the flame by always leaving a section with open flame exposed. Blow into it to encourage growth.
6. Once your fire is steady, start adding fuel while trying to maintain a tepee structure.

**Note**: When blowing into a fire, be gentle and take breaths away from the smoke.

### Nursing an ember
An ember is a small piece of tinder that is burning, but has not formed a flame. Once you have an ember, gently blow into it and feed it more tinder until a flame appears.

Sometimes it is easier to hold the tinder containing an ember and cup your hands closer together to find the right balance of oxygen and fuel.

### Fire starters

- **Matches/lighters**: Always have waterproof matches or a reliable lighter in your kit. These are the easiest methods of starting a fire: just put the flame to the tinder.
- **Fire steel**: Durable and works in all weather conditions, producing sparks to ignite your tinder. Scrape it quickly with the back of a knife or scraper to create sparks. For best results, pin the fire steel against the tinder and ground and scrape the steel towards the tinder. Some fire steel comes with a magnesium block, which you can scrape off shavings into the tinder before striking to help cactch a spark.
- **Magnifying glass / lens**: Focus sunlight through a lens onto tinder to create an ember. Glasses or even a clear bottle filled with water can work. This will take a while and requires direct sunlight. Credit card sized freznel lenses are also effective.


The following methods are more difficult to create a fire with and require practice. If you find yourself here, it may be best to focus on insulation and shelter to stay warm.

- **Flint and steel**: Strike a flint rock with a steel tool to create sparks. The tinder must be very dry and fine.
- **Bow drill**: Create friction by spinning a stick (drill) on a wooden base (fireboard) using a bow to rotate the drill.
- **Hand drill**: Create friction by spinning a stick (drill) between your hands on a wooden base (fireboard). Apply downward pressure while spinning.

### Using a bow drill
1. Create the socket by finding a small, flat stone or piece of hardwood with a small depression near the center.
2. Create the drill by finding a straight, dry stick about 10-12 inches long and ¾ inch in diameter.
3. For the fireboard, find a flat, dry piece of soft wood. Yucca, tamarack, aspen, balsam fir, basswood, poplar, cypress, cottonwood, alder, red cedar, and willow are preferred. Avoid resinous woods like pine.
4. Carve a small dpression about ½ to ¾ inch from the edge of the fireboard.
5. On the underside of the fireboard, make a V-shaped cut from the edge of the board to the depression.
6. Find a curved stick that can be used for the bow. It should be about 12-14 inches long and ½ inch in diameter.
7. Attach a cord or shoelace to both ends of the bow.
8. Fire the fire pan, a flat piece of bark or wood to catch the ember.
9. Wrap the drill into the bow string so that it can roll as it moves along the string.
10. Place the fireboard on top of the fire pan so the V-shaped is touching.
11. Place the drill (attached to the bow) into the depression you carved into the fireboard.
12. Place the depression in the socket onto the top end of the drill and apply downward pressure with your non-dominant hand.
13. Place your foot onto the fireboard (same side as non-dominant hand) and rest the hand holding the socket onto your knee.
14. With your dominant hand, start moving the bow side to side to cause the drill to spin. Be sure to go the full length of the bow string. Keep a steady, fast pace.
15. You will start to see smoke after a while, keep going until you are sure there's an ember created.
16. The ember should be transfered onto the fire pan (it may already be there), and moved to a tinder bundle where you can nurse it into a fire.


If you are using a hand drill, follow the same steps as the bow drill except don't create the bow and socket and instead roll the drill between your palms until your reach the bottom, then start again from the top.

## Extinguishing a fire
<!-- K: extinguish, safety -->
<!-- S: Thoroughly extinguish your fire with water or dirt. -->

Thoroughly extinguish your fire by dousing it with water or covering it with dirt.

- Never leave a fire unattended.
- Make sure no embers remain that could reignite or cause a wildfire.
- Always have a plan to extinguish the fire quickly if needed.
- On a beach, do not cover the fire with sand, as it can insulate the heat and cause burns.

## Increasing warmth
<!-- K: rock, reflector, hand-warmer -->
<!-- S: Thoroughly extinguish your fire with water or dirt. -->

### Fire reflector
A fire reflector is a wall built behind the fire to reflect heat towards you and protect the fire from wind. Use rocks, logs, or snow to build a barrier.


### Heating rocks

You can also heat rocks **near** the fire and place them in your shelter or sleeping area. Don't let the rocks get too hot (they should be warm to the touch) to avoid burns or fires. Be sure to check how hot the rocks are before touching them.

Instead of rocks, you could heat water and place it in a container or bottle to keep you warm.

## Craft: charcoal
<!-- K: charcoal, filter, coal, craft -->
<!-- S: You can make charcoal by not allowing wood to fully burn. -->

Charcoal is made by preventing wood from completely burning. It can be used for filtering water, medicine, and as fuel for fires. You can grind charcoal into powder by placing it in a container and crushing it with a stick or rock.

**Resources**
- Wood
- Water or dirt

**Instructions**
1. Burn a fire down to coals.
2. Douse the fire with water or dirt to quickly extinguish it.
3. Wait for the coals to cool, there should be some charcoal among the ashes. Charcoal is very light and entirely black.

<!-- K: fire, flame, light, heat, warm, burn -->
<!-- S: Build and maintain a fire. -->

This chapter covers how to make a fire.

## Be prepared
<!-- K: prepare, gear, knowledge, skill, starter, matches, lighter, steel, ferro, ferrocerium, tinder -->
<!-- S: Bring a fire starter. Learn how to build and maintain a fire. -->

### Gear
**Necessities**:
- Fire starter (waterproof matches, lighters, or fire steel - carry at least two different types)

**Optional**:
- Tinder (dryer lint, cotton balls, or commercial fire starters)

### Knowledge and skills
Start by learning how to do the following:
- Build a fire using multiple fire starters (matches, lighters, fire steel).
- Gather and prepare tinder, kindling, and fuel.
- Maintain a fire.
- Extinguish a fire.
- Build a fire in wet conditions.

Once you have mastered these skills, you should learn how to do the following:
- Protect a fire from wind and rain.
- Construct and use a bow drill.
- Make charcoal.
- Construct a fire bundle and start a fire with it.

## Preparing a fire site
<!-- K: build, gather, prepare, tinder, kindling, fuel, location, fatwood -->
<!-- S: Choose a flat, dry area protected from the wind. Gather tinder, kindling, and fuel. -->

- Choose a flat, dry area protected from the wind, close to your shelter and a fuel supply.
- Clear the ground to expose soil and remove any flammable materials to prevent unintended spreading.
- In snowy conditions, use a platform of logs to build the fire on.
- If possible, line the fire pit with dry rocks, dirt, or sand to prevent underground fires. Do not construct a fire pit over a root system or peat.
- Some areas may ban the construction of fires, so be aware of local laws and regulations.

### Fire reflector (optional)
A fire reflector is a wall built behind the fire to reflect heat towards you and protect the fire from wind. Use rocks, logs, or snow to build a barrier. It is easier to build a reflector before starting the fire.


### Gathering materials

- **Tinder**: Dry, fine materials that catch fire easily. You can dry out damp tinder by placing it near your body or in your sleeping bag.
- Shredded inner bark (birch, cedar, chestnut, red elm)
- Fine wood scrapings or shavings
- Fatwood: Resin-rich wood from pine trees, typically found at the base of dead branches.
- Dry grass, leaves, or pine needles
- Dry powdered sap from pine trees
- Crushed fibers from dead plants
- Seed down (cattail, milkweed, thistle)
- Feather sticks (wood shavings attached to a stick)
- Commercial fire starters
- Cotton balls (preferably soaked in petroleum jelly)
- Lint
- Paper
- Tinder fungus or chaga
- **Kindling**: Small sticks and twigs that catch fire from the tinder and help build the flame.
- Sticks and twigs (pencil to finger thickness)
- Thinly split wood
- Plastics, such as straws or spoons
- Wood soaked in a flammable liquid such as bug spray (use caution)
- **Fuel**: Larger pieces of wood that will burn longer and sustain your fire.
- Prefer fallen wood that you can break by hand
- To break a larger piece of wood, insert it between two live trees at the point you want to break it and push it to the side until it snaps


## Starting a fire
<!-- K: start, light, ignite, matches, lighters, steel, ferro, ferrocerium, magnesium, flint, bow-drill, hand-drill, drill, magnifying, lens, tepee, structure -->
<!-- S: If you have a fire starter, use it. You can improvise if required, but it will be more difficult and requires practice. -->

1. Have a sufficient supply of tinder, kindling, and fuel nearby.
2. Form the tinder into a small bundle or nest and place it on the ground.
3. Lean a few pieces of kindling against the tinder in a tepee shape.
4. Light the tinder.
5. Carefully add kindling to the fire, being careful not to smother the flame by always leaving a section with open flame exposed. Blow into it to encourage growth.
6. Once your fire is steady, start adding fuel while trying to maintain a tepee structure.

**Note**: When blowing into a fire, be gentle and take breaths away from the smoke.

### Nursing an ember
An ember is a small piece of tinder that is burning, but has not formed a flame. Once you have an ember, gently blow into it and feed it more tinder until a flame appears.

Sometimes it is easier to hold the tinder containing an ember and cup your hands closer together to find the right balance of oxygen and fuel.

### Fire starters

- **Matches/lighters**: Always have waterproof matches or a reliable lighter in your kit. These are the easiest methods of starting a fire: just put the flame to the tinder.
- **Fire steel**: Durable and works in all weather conditions, producing sparks to ignite your tinder. Scrape it quickly with the back of a knife or scraper to create sparks. For best results, pin the fire steel against the tinder and ground and scrape the steel towards the tinder. Some fire steel comes with a magnesium block, which you can scrape off shavings into the tinder before striking to help cactch a spark.
- **Magnifying glass / lens**: Focus sunlight through a lens onto tinder to create an ember. Glasses or even a clear bottle filled with water can work. This will take a while and requires direct sunlight. Credit card sized freznel lenses are also effective.


The following methods are more difficult to create a fire with and require practice. If you find yourself here, it may be best to focus on insulation and shelter to stay warm.

- **Flint and steel**: Strike a flint rock with a steel tool to create sparks. The tinder must be very dry and fine.
- **Bow drill**: Create friction by spinning a stick (drill) on a wooden base (fireboard) using a bow to rotate the drill.
- **Hand drill**: Create friction by spinning a stick (drill) between your hands on a wooden base (fireboard). Apply downward pressure while spinning.

### Using a bow drill
1. Create the socket by finding a small, flat stone or piece of hardwood with a small depression near the center.
2. Create the drill by finding a straight, dry stick about 10-12 inches long and ¾ inch in diameter.
3. For the fireboard, find a flat, dry piece of soft wood. Yucca, tamarack, aspen, balsam fir, basswood, poplar, cypress, cottonwood, alder, red cedar, and willow are preferred. Avoid resinous woods like pine.
4. Carve a small dpression about ½ to ¾ inch from the edge of the fireboard.
5. On the underside of the fireboard, make a V-shaped cut from the edge of the board to the depression.
6. Find a curved stick that can be used for the bow. It should be about 12-14 inches long and ½ inch in diameter.
7. Attach a cord or shoelace to both ends of the bow.
8. Fire the fire pan, a flat piece of bark or wood to catch the ember.
9. Wrap the drill into the bow string so that it can roll as it moves along the string.
10. Place the fireboard on top of the fire pan so the V-shaped is touching.
11. Place the drill (attached to the bow) into the depression you carved into the fireboard.
12. Place the depression in the socket onto the top end of the drill and apply downward pressure with your non-dominant hand.
13. Place your foot onto the fireboard (same side as non-dominant hand) and rest the hand holding the socket onto your knee.
14. With your dominant hand, start moving the bow side to side to cause the drill to spin. Be sure to go the full length of the bow string. Keep a steady, fast pace.
15. You will start to see smoke after a while, keep going until you are sure there's an ember created.
16. The ember should be transfered onto the fire pan (it may already be there), and moved to a tinder bundle where you can nurse it into a fire.


If you are using a hand drill, follow the same steps as the bow drill except don't create the bow and socket and instead roll the drill between your palms until your reach the bottom, then start again from the top.

## Extinguishing or moving a fire
<!-- K: extinguish, safety, transport, move, bundle, tinder-fungus, chaga -->
<!-- S: Thoroughly extinguish your fire with water or dirt. -->

Thoroughly extinguish your fire by dousing it with water or covering it with dirt.

- Never leave a fire unattended.
- Make sure no embers remain that could reignite or cause a wildfire.
- Always have a plan to extinguish the fire quickly if needed.
- On a beach, do not cover the fire with sand, as it can insulate the heat and cause burns.

### Moving the fire

**Transporting heat**

If you want the heat from your fire to last longer, Increasing warmth
<!-- K: rock, reflector, hand-warmer -->
<!-- S: Thoroughly extinguish your fire with water or dirt. -->

### Fire reflector
A fire reflector is a wall built behind the fire to reflect heat towards you and protect the fire from wind. Use rocks, logs, or snow to build a barrier.


### Heating rocks

You can also heat rocks **near** the fire and place them in your shelter or sleeping area. Don't let the rocks get too hot (they should be warm to the touch) to avoid burns or fires. Be sure to check how hot the rocks are before touching them.

AlternativelyInstead of rocks, you could heat water and place it in a container or bottle to keep you warm.

**Fire bundle**

A fire bundle is a portable fire that can be carried to a new location. It is made by wrapping a burning ember or coals in a bundle of dry punk wood and damp plant matter, contained in bark. This allows you to transport a fire without needing to start a new one from scratch.


You can also use tinder fungus or chaga as a self contained fire bundle, as the inside will hold an ember for hours.

## Craft: charcoal
<!-- K: charcoal, filter, coal, craft -->
<!-- S: You can make charcoal by not allowing wood to fully burn. -->

Charcoal is made by preventing wood from completely burning. It can be used for filtering water, making pitch, medicine, and as fuel for fires. You can grind charcoal into powder by placing it in a container and crushing it with a stick or rock.

**Resources**
- Wood
- Water or dirt

**Instructions**
1. Burn a fire down to coals.
2. Douse the fire with water or dirt to quickly extinguish it.
3. Wait for the coals to cool, there should be some charcoal among the ashes. Charcoal is very light and entirely black.

<!-- K: food, eat, meal, hunger, hungry, forage, identify, edible, inedible -->
<!-- S: Ration food and forage when there's none left. -->

This chapter covers how to find and prepare food in a survival situation.

## Be prepared
<!-- K: prepare, gear, knowledge, skill, nuts, seeds, dried, fruit, jerky, energy, bar, mre, can, knife, multitool, multi-tool, bag, canister, utensil, stove, fuel -->
<!-- S: Bring extra food. Learn how to find food and cook in the wilderness. -->

### Gear

**Necessities**:
- Food (enough for the duration of your trip, plus a bit extra). Some good options include:
- Nuts
- Seeds
- Dried fruit
- Jerky
- Energy bars
- Dehydrated meals (with extra water)
- Canned food (with a can opener if needed)
- Knife or multi-tool
- Bear bag or canister

**Optional**:
- Cooking pot or container
- Utensils (a spork is a good option)
- Cooking stove and fuel

### Knowledge and skills
Start by learning how to do the following:
- Plan your meals for a trip.
- Cook food by boiling or roasting over a fire.
- Use a bear bag or canister to protect your food.

Once you have mastered these skills, you should learn how to do the following:
- Identify edible plants and mushrooms.
- Find and catch insects, shellfish, crustaceans, fish, and other animals.
- Preserve food.
- Make traps.

## Food essentials
<!-- K: nutrition, caloric, calorie, carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamin, mineral, storage, starvation, ration -->
<!-- S: You need around 2,000 calories per day, but you can ration your food to make it last longer. You should properly store your food to avoid spoilage. -->

### Caloric and nutritional needs
The average person needs around 2,000 calories per day. You should aim to balance carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals in your diet.

- **Carbohydrates**: Provide an immediate source of energy and are found in grains, fruits, and vegetables. Aim for 45–65% of your daily caloric intake.
- **Fats**: Provide long-term energy and are used in essential bodily functions. They are found in meats, oils, nuts, and seeds. Aim for 20–35% of your daily caloric intake.
- **Proteins**: Build and repair tissues and are found in meats, legumes, nuts, and seeds.
- **Vitamins and minerals**: Essential for overall health and are found in most foods, but a varied diet is necessary to ensure you get all the necessary nutrients.

### Storage

Food should be stored in airtight containers to prevent spoilage and contamination. Do not pack foods that spoil quickly or require refrigeration.

### Rationing

If you are in a survival situation, you may need to ration your food to make it last longer. Eat two-thirds of your food in the first half of your survival situation (about 2-3 days after your expected return date), and the remaining third in the days that follow. Eating your food will give you the energy you need to construct a shelter and plan.

### Starvation

Starvation occurs when the body does not receive enough nutrients to function properly. Symptoms include:
- Loss of body fat.
- Difficulty breathing.
- Lower body temperature.
- Reduced muscle mass.
- Fatigue.
- Longer healing time for wounds and illnesses.

## Plants and mushrooms
<!-- K: plant, mushroom, seaweed, weeds, green, sap, fungus, forage, poison, toxic, leach, berries -->
<!-- S: Only eat plants you can confidently identity as safe and don't eat any mushrooms. Aggregate berries, like raspberries and blackberries, are generally safe. -->

Only eat wild plants that you can positively identify as safe. Before your trip, it's wise to study local plants through guidebooks or plant identification cards.

If you are unable to identify plants, just eat bugs; most plants don't have a lot of calories.

### Foraging

Key considerations when choosing plants include:

- Aggregate berries are generally edible. These include raspberries and blackberries.
- Plants in or near contaminated water must be washed and cooked to avoid consuming harmful bacteria or chemicals.
- Even within the same species, plants can vary in toxicity due to environmental factors.
- If you are sensitive to allergens like poison ivy, steer clear of similar plants such as mangoes or cashews, which can cause similar reactions.
- Some plants are more nutritious than others. For example, nuts and seeds are high in calories and fats, while leafy greens are high in vitamins and minerals.
- Some plants are fine for animals but toxic to humans.
- Seaweed washed ashore may be spoiled or decayed.
- Some plants or nuts, such as acorns, should be boiled a few times before eating to leach out toxins.
- **Avoid the following**:
- Mushrooms.
- Roadside plants.
- Plants with umbrella-shaped flowers.
- Plants with milky sap.
- Plants with shiny leaves.
- Plants with white, yellow, or red berries.
- Beans, bulbs, or seeds inside pods.
- Plants with a pungent odor.
- Plants with an almond scent in the leaves or woody parts.
- Plants with a bitter or soapy taste.
- Plants with thorns, fine hairs, or spines.
- Plants that resemble dill, carrot, parsnip, or parsley.
- Plants with three-leaved growth patterns.
- Plants with signs of mildew, fungus, or spoilage.

### Preparation

Wash plants, then cut them into usable pieces. Some plants can be eaten raw, while others need to be cooked.

## Insects
<!-- K: insect, bug, grub, worm, ant, termite, locust, grasshopper, cricket, dragonfly, bait -->
<!-- S: Most insects can be eaten when cooked or used as fishing bait. -->

Insects are a good source of protein but need to be gathered in large numbers to provide a substantial meal. If you don't want to eat insects, you can use them as bait for fishing or trapping.

### Collection

Good places to find insects include rotting logs, under rocks, and in grassy fields.

Do not eat the following insects:
- Biting or stinging insects.
- Hairy or brightly colored insects.
- Insects with a pungent odor.
- Hairy caterpillars.
- Spiders.
- Ticks.
- Flies.
- Mosquitoes.

Common edible insects include:
- Ants and termites.
- Locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets.
- Dragonflies.
- Worms and grubs.

Many flying insects can be attracted to a light source at night, making them easier to catch.

### Preparation

Remove the following parts before eating insects:
- Stingers.
- Legs.
- Wings.
- Head.

Cook all insects using any of the cooking techniques in this chapter.

Worms can be placed in water for 15 minutes to purge their digestive tracts. After purging, they should be cooked before eating.

## Shellfish and crustaceans
<!-- K: shellfish, crustacean, clam, mussel, snail, limpet, crayfish, lobster, crab, shrimp, shell, bait, basket, trap, seafood, algae, tide, coastal, coast -->
<!-- S: Many shellfish and crustaceans are found along the shoreline and most can be eaten when cooked. -->

Shellfish and crustaceans are a good source of protein and can be found in both freshwater and saltwater. They are relatively easy to catch, so they make a good survival food source.

### Collection

Search shallow waters, tide pools, and rocky areas for shellfish and crustaceans. Snails and limpets can often be found attached to rocks, which may be easier to access during low tide.

In freshwater, crayfish can be located under and around stones in streams or in soft mud during the daytime. You can attach bait to a string and lower it into the water to attract crayfish. Once it grabs the bait, pull it to shore.

In saltwater, lobsters, crabs, and shrimp can be found near the water's edge or in shallow water. Crabs will come to shore if you leave bait at the water's edge, where they can be easily caught. Lobsters and crabs are more active at night, and shrimp are attracted to light.

**Caution**: Mussels may be poisonous in tropical waters during the summer. If a red tide occurred within three days, do not eat fish or shellfish. Do not eat shellfish covered by water during high tide.

### Trapping

A basket fish trap can be used to catch crustaceans. Bait the trap with food and place it in the water. Check the trap every few hours to see if you have caught anything.


For details on how to construct this trap, see the Fish section of this chapter.

### Preparation

Fully cook to kill parasites. Shellfish can be cooked in their shells.

## Fish
<!-- K: fish, hook, line, pole, bait, basket, trap, funnel, kill, seafood, meat -->
<!-- S: Most fish are edible once cooked, but will require some fishing gear. -->

If you are in a longer-term survival situation or have access to fishing gear, fish can be a good source of protein and nutrients.

### Fishing

Fish are most active:
- Before a storm.
- Near rocks or logs.
- Under overhanging brush.

There are no poisonous freshwater fish, but there are some poisonous saltwater fish. Most fish are edible.

**Hooks**

Hooks with barbs are more effective than barbless hooks at keeping fish on the line.

You can craft a hook if needed:

- Wooden hooks: Cut a piece of hardwood, put a notch in one end and secure a sharp object into the notch using cordage.
- Gorge hooks: Carve a piece of wood or bone into the shape shown in the picture below. Tie a line to the middle of the hook and place into bait. When the fish swallows the bait, the hook will lodge in its throat - you do not need to pull the line to set the hook.
- Other hooks: You can use metal wire or thorns as hooks. See the picture below.


**Lines**

If you do not have fishing line, you can make it from plant fibers, inner strands of paracord (using a bend knot to join them together), or other strong cordage.

**Poles**

If you do not have a fishing pole, you can make one from a stick, bamboo, or other materials. You can also wrap the line around a short stick and use it as a hand line.

**Bait**

For best results, bait the hooks using insects, worms, or pieces of food.

**Traps**

You can construct a basket fish trap by weaving together branches or other materials. Bait the trap with food and place it in the water. Check it every few hours. This can also be used to catch crustaceans.

Alternatively, use a funnel fish trap by placing sticks into a V-shape with a retaining area at the end. Fish swim into the trap and are unable to find their way out. In tidal areas, you can set up a wall of stones during low tide; as the tide recedes, fish may get trapped behind the wall.


### Preparation

1. Kill the fish by hitting it on the head with a club or rock. Use a hard, quick blow. You can then use a knife to cut the gills or pierce the brain to ensure the fish is dead.
2. Remove scales by scraping them off with a knife (tail to head).
3. Remove entrails by cutting the belly open and pulling them out. You can also cut off the head and tail to make this easier.
4. Cut into usable pieces or fillet the fish. If it is a small fish, you can also just cook it whole.
5. Cook the fish.

## Other animals
<!-- K: animal, hunt, bow, trap, deadfall, bird, reptile, amphibian, frog, snake, mammal, skin, kill, meat, butcher, skin -->
<!-- S: Hunting or trapping can be energy consuming and difficult without proper tools. -->

In a survival situation, it's best to focus on easier-to-catch animals like insects, shellfish, crustaceans, and fish. But if you have the means to catch other animals, they can provide a good source of protein and nutrients.

### Hunting

**Firearms and bows**

If you have a firearm or bow with you, aim for the vital organs to ensure a quick kill. It is unlikely you will be able to construct a survival bow that is effective for hunting.

**Clubs**

A club can be as simple as a stick with a heavy end. This can be used to kill fish or other small animals with a quick, forceful blow to the head.

**Spears**

A spear can be made by sharpening a stick and optionally hardening the tip in a fire. Unless you have experience, it's best to stab with the spear instead of throwing it. To make it easier to hit your target, you can construct multiple spear points if you use a forked branch.

**Throwing sticks and rocks**

In a pinch, you can throw a heavy stick or rock to kill or stun small animals. Aim for the head to ensure a quick kill.

### Trapping

Traps allow for the passive capture of small animals. They can be set up and left alone while you perform other tasks. Check them every few hours.

Look for signs of animal activity like tracks, droppings, or chewed vegetation. Set up traps in areas where animals are likely to pass through. You can construct funnels or walls to guide animals into them.

Baiting the traps can increase their effectiveness. Use food native to the area that animals are likely to eat. Smoking the traps can help mask your scent.

**Deadfalls**

Deadfall traps are good for catching small animals. They work by dropping a heavy object on the animal when it triggers the trap. The trigger mechanism can be made from a stick and a bait stick. When the animal takes the bait, the trigger releases, causing the heavy object to fall.

Examples of deadfall traps:



Stop cuts are used to prevent wood from splitting when you are cutting it. To make a stop cut, make a small cut perpendicular to the grain of the wood where you want to stop the cut. This cut should be about 1/3 of the way through the wood. You can baton the knife to form a stop cut by placing the knife where you want to make the cut and hitting it with a stick - only do this on full tang knives.

### Birds

Birds are most easily caught at night when roosting or you can eat eggs from nests. Use a club, throwing stick, or rock to kill or stun the bird.

To prepare a bird for cooking:

1. Pluck feathers. You can place the bird in boiling water to make this easier. Optionally, you can skin the bird instead, but that removes some of the fat.
2. Cut open the body cavity and remove the entrails.
3. For larger birds, cut off the feet and separate the bird into usable pieces along the joints.
4. Cook the bird.

**Notes**:

- Sea birds should be skinned rather than plucked to remove oil glands.
- Scavenger birds, such as vultures, should be boiled for at least 20 minutes to kill parasites.

### Reptiles and amphibians

Reptiles and amphibians are easier to catch than mammals and birds. They can be found moving across open ground. Use a gig or pin them down with a stick behind the head.

Frogs can be caught near water sources using a gig.

Traps with bait may also be effective for catching reptiles and amphibians.

Always wash your hands after handling reptiles and amphibians, as they can carry salmonella. Cook the meat thoroughly.

**Do not eat the following**:
- Box turtles.
- Hawksbill turtles.
- Brightly colored frogs.
- Frogs with an X on their back.
- Tree frogs.
- Toads.
- Salamanders.
- Snakes - edible, but may be dangerous to catch.
- If you kill a snake, cut off and bury its head before cleaning. Never touch the head with your hands, use sticks instead.

### Small mammals

Small mammals can be caught using traps. They can also be caught using a club, throwing stick, or rock.

To prepare a small mammal for cooking:

1. Make cuts down the insides of the back legs.
2. Pull the skin off the body like a glove. You'll need to sever the head and front feet to remove the skin.
3. Cut open the abdominal cavity and remove the entrails. Be careful not to puncture the intestines.

This guide does not cover the preparation of large mammals, as they are difficult to catch and require a lot of energy to process.

## Cooking
<!-- K: cook, boil, roast, bake, utensil, container, stove -->
<!-- S: You should boil, roast, or bake most foods to avoid getting sick. This will require you to start fire or have a portable stove. -->

Do not try to preserve food you catch, just cook and eat it.

### Stoves
Portable stoves are a convenient way to cook food. They can be fueled by wood, alcohol, or gas. Follow the manufacturer's instructions for use.

Be sure to let the stove cool down before packing it away.

### Boiling

Boiling preserves the most nutrients in food and is the safest method of cooking. You can use a metal container filled with water suspended over a fire or placed onto hot coals. See the Water chapter for more information on boiling water.

### Roasting

Roasting is a quick and easy method of cooking, but you will get fewer nutrients from the food. You can roast food on a stick over a fire or place it on hot coals.

### Baking

You can wrap food in leaves or clay and place it in the coals of a fire to bake it. This method is slower than roasting but preserves more nutrients. Do not skin fish or birds packed with clay, as the skin will stick to the clay and can be removed after cooking.

### Utensils
If you are packing utensils, a spork is a good option. Otherwise, you can use a stick or your hands to handle food. Be sure to wash your hands before eating.

## Protection
<!-- K: protect, bear, bag, canister, box -->
<!-- S: Use bear bags or canisters to prevent animals from stealing your food. -->

You may need to protect your food from animals. Here are some methods to keep your food safe:

### Bear bags

A bear bag is a bag of food hoisted into a tree to keep it out of reach of bears and other animals.

1. Place food in a bag.
2. Tie a rope to the bag.
3. Throw the rope over a high branch and hoist the bag up.
4. Tie the rope to a tree to keep the bag elevated.

### Bear canisters

A bear canister is a hard plastic container used to store food. It is bear-proof and can be left on the ground.

Some campsites may provide a bear box, which is a large metal box used to store food.

## Craft: Tongs
<!-- K: tongs, craft -->
<!-- S: You can make tongs from green wood. -->

**Resources**
- Green wood

**Instructions**
1. Cut a length of green wood.
2. Split the wood down the middle to create a flat surface.
3. Optionally, carve a small notch in the center of the stick to allow it to bend more easily.
4. Bend the wood in half to create tongs.

<!-- K: food, eat, meal, hunger, hungry, forage, identify, edible, inedible -->
<!-- S: Ration food and forage when there's none left. -->

This chapter covers how to find and prepare food in a survival situation.

## Be prepared
<!-- K: prepare, gear, knowledge, skill, nuts, seeds, dried, fruit, jerky, energy, bar, mre, can, knife, multitool, multi-tool, bag, canister, utensil, stove, fuel -->
<!-- S: Bring extra food. Learn how to find food and cook in the wilderness. -->

### Gear

**Necessities**:
- Food (enough for the duration of your trip, plus a bit extra). Some good options include:
- Nuts
- Seeds
- Dried fruit
- Jerky
- Energy bars
- Dehydrated meals (with extra water)
- Canned food (with a can opener if needed)
- Knife or multi-tool
- Bear bag or canister

**Optional**:
- Cooking pot or container
- Utensils (a spork is a good option)
- Cooking stove and fuel

### Knowledge and skills
Start by learning how to do the following:
- Plan your meals for a trip.
- Cook food by boiling or roasting over a fire.
- Use a bear bag or canister to protect your food.

Once you have mastered these skills, you should learn how to do the following:
- Identify edible plants and mushrooms.
- Find and catch insects, shellfish, crustaceans, fish, and other animals.
- Preserve food.
- Make traps.

## Food essentials
<!-- K: nutrition, caloric, calorie, carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamin, mineral, storage, starvation, ration -->
<!-- S: You need around 2,000 calories per day, but you can ration your food to make it last longer. You should properly store your food to avoid spoilage. -->

### Caloric and nutritional needs
The average person needs around 2,000 calories per day. You should aim to balance carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals in your diet.

- **Carbohydrates**: Provide an immediate source of energy and are found in grains, fruits, and vegetables. Aim for 45–65% of your daily caloric intake.
- **Fats**: Provide long-term energy and are used in essential bodily functions. They are found in meats, oils, nuts, and seeds. Aim for 20–35% of your daily caloric intake.
- **Proteins**: Build and repair tissues and are found in meats, legumes, nuts, and seeds.
- **Vitamins and minerals**: Essential for overall health and are found in most foods, but a varied diet is necessary to ensure you get all the necessary nutrients.

### Storage

Food should be stored in airtight containers to prevent spoilage and contamination. Do not pack foods that spoil quickly or require refrigeration.

### Rationing

If you are in a survival situation, you may need to ration your food to make it last longer. A recommended method is to divide your food into thirds. Eat two-thirds of your food during the first half of the timeyour survival situation (about 2-3 days after your expect to be lost and save the lasted return date), and the remaining third forin the second half. It may be difficult to estimate how long you will be lost, but figure around 2–3 days after your expected return date, assuming you shared your plans with someonedays that follow. Eating your food will give you the energy you need to construct a shelter and plan.

### Starvation

Starvation occurs when the body does not receive enough nutrients to function properly. Symptoms include:
- Loss of body fat.
- Difficulty breathing.
- Lower body temperature.
- Reduced muscle mass.
- Fatigue.
- Longer healing time for wounds and illnesses.

## Plants and mushrooms
<!-- K: plant, mushroom, seaweed, weeds, green, sap, fungus, forage, poison, toxic, leach, test, berries -->
<!-- S: Only eat plants you can confidently identity as safe and don't eat any mushrooms. Aggregate berries, like raspberries and blackberries, are generally safe. -->

The safest method for consuming wild plants is throughOnly eat wild plants that you can positively identificationy as safe. Before your trip, it's wise to study local plants through guidebooks or plant identification cards.

### Foraging

Key considerations when choosing plants include:
If you are unable to identify plants, just eat bugs; most plants don't have a lot of calories.

### Foraging

Key considerations when choosing plants include:

- Aggregate berries are generally edible. These include raspberries and blackberries.
- Plants in or near contaminated water must be washed and cooked to avoid consuming harmful bacteria or chemicals.
- Even within the same species, plants can vary in toxicity due to environmental factors.
- If you are sensitive to allergens like poison ivy, steer clear of similar plants such as mangoes or cashews, which can cause similar reactions.
- Some plants are more nutritious than others. For example, nuts and seeds are high in calories and fats, while leafy greens are high in vitamins and minerals.
- Some plants are fine for animals but toxic to humans.
- Aggregate berries are generally safe. These include raspberries and blackberries.
- Seaweed washed ashore maySeaweed washed ashore may be spoiled or decayed.
- Some plants or nuts, such as acorns, should be spboiled or decayeda few times before eating to leach out toxins.
- **Avoid the following**:
- Mushrooms.
- Roadside plants.
- Plants with umbrella-shaped flowers.
- Plants with milky sap.
- Plants with shiny leaves.
- Plants with white, yellow, or red berries.
- Beans, bulbs, or seeds inside pods.
- Plants with a pungent odor.
- Plants with an almond scent in the leaves or woody parts.
- Plants with a bitter or soapy taste.
- Plants with thorns, fine hairs, or spines.
- Plants that resemble dill, carrot, parsnip, or parsley.
- Plants with three-leaved growth patterns.
- Plants with signs of mildew, fungus, or spoilage.

**Edibility testing**

If unsure about a plant and are in **extreme need**, you can use the Universal Edibility Test to determine its safety. This should be a last resort and is not advised, as it can be dangerous. The test is as follows:

1. If the plant has an unpleasant odor, do not proceed.
2. Crush or break part of the plant to check for colored or milky sap. Only proceed if the sap is clear.
3. Touch the plant's sap or juice to the inner forearm. If there are no ill effects, such as a rash or burning sensation, proceed.
4. Place the plant's sap or juice on the outer lip for eight minutes. If there are no ill effects, proceed.
5. Taste a small pinch of the plant and leave it in your mouth for eight minutes. If there's an unpleasant taste or burning sensation, spit it out and rinse your mouth. If there are no ill effects, proceed.
6. Swallow the small pinch of the plant from step 5. Wait eight hours. If there are no ill effects, proceed.
7. Eat a handful of the plant and wait another eight hours. If there are no ill effects, the plant is safe to eat. Exercise restraint when eating large quantities of a new plant, as it may cause digestive issues.

Note that each part of a plant needs to be tested separately, as some parts may be toxic while others are safe.

### Preparation

Wash plants, then cut them into usable pieces. Some plants can be eaten raw, while others need to be cooked.

**Leaching**

Some plants contain toxins that can be removed by leaching. A common example is acorns, which can be shelled and boiled in several changes of water to remove tannins### Preparation

Wash plants, then cut them into usable pieces. Some plants can be eaten raw, while others need to be cooked.

## Insects
<!-- K: insect, bug, grub, worm, ant, termite, locust, grasshopper, cricket, dragonfly, bait -->
<!-- S: Most insects can be eaten when cooked or used as fishing bait. -->

Insects are a good source of protein but need to be gathered in large numbers to provide a substantial meal. If you don't want to eat insects, you can use them as bait for fishing or trapping.

### Collection

Good places to find insects include rotting logs, under rocks, and in grassy fields.

Do not eat the following insects:
- Biting or stinging insects.
- Hairy or brightly colored insects.
- Insects with a pungent odor.
- Hairy caterpillars.
- Spiders.
- Ticks.
- Flies.
- Mosquitoes.

Common edible insects include:
- Ants and termites.
- Locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets.
- Dragonflies.
- Worms and grubs.

Many flying insects can be attracted to a light source at night, making them easier to catch.

### Preparation

Remove the following parts before eating insects:
- Stingers.
- Legs.
- Wings.
- Head.

Cook all insects using any of the cooking techniques in this chapter.

Worms can be placed in water for 15 minutes to purge their digestive tracts. After purging, they should be cooked before eating.

## Shellfish and crustaceans
<!-- K: shellfish, crustacean, clam, mussel, snail, limpet, crayfish, lobster, crab, shrimp, shell, bait, basket, trap, seafood, algae, tide, coastal, coast -->
<!-- S: Many shellfish and crustaceans are found along the shoreline and most can be eaten when cooked. -->

Shellfish and crustaceans are a good source of protein and can be found in both freshwater and saltwater. They are relatively easy to catch, so they make a good survival food source.

### Collection

Search shallow waters, tide pools, and rocky areas for shellfish and crustaceans. Snails and limpets can often be found attached to rocks, which may be easier to access during low tide.

In freshwater, crayfish can be located under and around stones in streams or in soft mud during the daytime. You can attach bait to a string and lower it into the water to attract crayfish. Once it grabs the bait, pull it to shore.

In saltwater, lobsters, crabs, and shrimp can be found near the water's edge or in shallow water. Crabs will come to shore if you leave bait at the water's edge, where they can be easily caught. Lobsters and crabs are more active at night, and shrimp are attracted to light.

**Caution**: Mussels may be poisonous in tropical waters during the summer. If a red tide occurred within three days, do not eat fish or shellfish. Do not eat shellfish covered by water during high tide.

### Trapping

A basket fish trap can be used to catch crustaceans. Bait the trap with food and place it in the water. Check the trap every few hours to see if you have caught anything.


For details on how to construct this trap, see the Fish section of this chapter.

### Preparation

Fully cook to kill parasites. Shellfish can be cooked in their shells.

## Fish
<!-- K: fish, hook, line, pole, bait, basket, trap, funnel, kill, seafood, meat -->
<!-- S: Most fish are edible once cooked, but will require some fishing gear. -->

If you are in a longer-term survival situation or have access to fishing gear, fish can be a good source of protein and nutrients.

### Fishing

Fish are most active:
- Before a storm.
- Near rocks or logs.
- Under overhanging brush.

There are no poisonous freshwater fish, but there are some poisonous saltwater fish. Most fish are edible.

**Hooks**

Hooks with barbs are more effective than barbless hooks at keeping fish on the line.

You can craft a hook if needed:

- Wooden hooks: Cut a piece of hardwood, put a notch in one end and secure a sharp object into the notch using cordage.
- Gorge hooks: Carve a piece of wood or bone into the shape shown in the picture below. Tie a line to the middle of the hook and place into bait. When the fish swallows the bait, the hook will lodge in its throat - you do not need to pull the line to set the hook.
- Other hooks: You can use metal wire or thorns as hooks. See the picture below.


**Lines**

If you do not have fishing line, you can make it from plant fibers, inner strands of paracord (using a bend knot to join them together), or other strong cordage.

**Poles**

If you do not have a fishing pole, you can make one from a stick, bamboo, or other materials. You can also wrap the line around a short stick and use it as a hand line.

**Bait**

For best results, bait the hooks using insects, worms, or pieces of food.

**Traps**

You can construct a basket fish trap by weaving together branches or other materials. Bait the trap with food and place it in the water. Check it every few hours. This can also be used to catch crustaceans.

Alternatively, use a funnel fish trap by placing sticks into a V-shape with a retaining area at the end. Fish swim into the trap and are unable to find their way out. In tidal areas, you can set up a wall of stones during low tide; as the tide recedes, fish may get trapped behind the wall.


### Preparation

1. Kill the fish by hitting it on the head with a club or rock. Use a hard, quick blow. You can then use a knife to cut the gills or pierce the brain to ensure the fish is dead.
2. Remove scales by scraping them off with a knife (tail to head).
3. Remove entrails by cutting the belly open and pulling them out. You can also cut off the head and tail to make this easier.
4. Cut into usable pieces or fillet the fish. If it is a small fish, you can also just cook it whole.
5. Cook the fish.

## Other animals
<!-- K: animal, hunt, bow, trap, deadfall, bird, reptile, amphibian, frog, snake, mammal, skin, kill, meat, butcher, skin -->
<!-- S: Hunting or trapping can be energy consuming and difficult without proper tools. -->

In a survival situation, it's best to focus on easier-to-catch animals like insects, shellfish, crustaceans, and fish. But if you have the means to catch other animals, they can provide a good source of protein and nutrients.

### Hunting

**Firearms and bows**

If you have a firearm or bow with you, the odds are that you know how to use it. Aaim for the vital organs to ensure a quick kill. It is unlikely you will be able to construct a survival bow that is effective for hunting.

**Clubs**

A club can be as simple as a stick with a heavy end. This can be used to kill fish or other small animals with a quick, forceful blow to the head.

**Spears and gigs**

A spear can be made by sharpening a stick and optionally hardening the tip in a fire. While it can be thrown, it's more effective to use it as a thrusting weapon without experience.

For hunting smaller animals like frogs, a gig can be made by finding a forked stick and sharpening the ends. Optionally, split the ends of a larger stick and insert smaller sticks to keep the split openUnless you have experience, it's best to stab with the spear instead of throwing it. To make it easier to hit your target, you can construct multiple spear points if you use a forked branch.

**Throwing sticks and rocks**

In a pinch, you can use a throwingthrow a heavy stick or rock to kill or stun small animals. Aim for the head to ensure a quick kill. The throwing stick can be made by finding a stick with a natural curve that has some weight to it. Throw it like you would throw a boomerang.

### Trapping

Traps allow for the passive capture of small animals. They can be set up and left alone while you perform other tasks. Check them every few hours.

Look for signs of animal activity like tracks, droppings, or chewed vegetation. Set up traps in areas where animals are likely to pass through. You can construct funnels or walls to guide animals into them.

Baiting the traps can increase their effectiveness. Use food native to the area that animals are likely to eat. Smoking the traps can help mask your scent.

**Deadfalls**

Deadfall traps are good for catching small animals. They work by dropping a heavy object on the animal when it triggers the trap. The trigger mechanism can be made from a stick and a bait stick. When the animal takes the bait, the trigger releases, causing the heavy object to fall.

Examples of deadfall traps:



Stop cuts are used to prevent wood from splitting when you are cutting it. To make a stop cut, make a small cut perpendicular to the grain of the wood where you want to stop the cut. This cut should be about 1/3 of the way through the wood. You can baton the knife to form a stop cut by placing the knife where you want to make the cut and hitting it with a stick - only do this on full tang knives.

### Birds

Without a firearm or bow, birds can be difficult to catch. TheyBirds are most easily caught at night when roosting or you can eat eggs from nests. Use a club, throwing stick, or rock to kill or stun the bird.

Also, look for bird nests, as they may contain eggs.

To prepare a bird for cooking:

1. Pluck feathers. You can place the bird in boiling water to make this easier. Optionally, you can skin the bird instead, but that removes some of the fat.
2. Cut open the body cavity and remove the entrails.
3. For larger birds, cut off the feet and separate the bird into usable pieces along the joints.
4. Cook the bird.

**Notes**:

- Sea birds should be skinned rather than plucked to remove oil glands.
- Scavenger birds, such as vultures, should be boiled for at least 20 minutes to kill parasites.

### Reptiles and amphibians

Reptiles and amphibians are easier to catch than mammals and birds. They can be found moving across open ground. Use a gig or pin them down with a stick behind the head.

Frogs can be caught near water sources using a gig.

Traps with bait may also be effective for catching reptiles and amphibians.

To clean a snake:

1. Cut off the head and bury it to avoid accidentally stepping on it.
2. Slit the belly and remove the entrails.
3. Skin the snake and cut it into usable pieces.


Always wash your hands after handling reptiles and amphibians, as they can carry salmonella. Cook the meat thoroughly.

**Do not eat the following**:
- Box turtles.
- Hawksbill turtles.
- Brightly colored frogs.
- Frogs with an X on their back.
- Tree frogs.
- Toads.
- Salamanders. - Snakes - edible, but may be dangerous to catch.
- If you kill a snake, cut off and bury its head before cleaning. Never touch the head with your hands, use sticks instead.

### Small mammals

Small mammals can be caught using traps. They can also be caught using a club, throwing stick, or rock.

To prepare a small mammal for cooking:

1. Make cuts down the insides of the back legs.
2. Pull the skin off the body like a glove. You'll need to sever the head and front feet to remove the skin.
3. Cut open the abdominal cavity and remove the entrails. Be careful not to puncture the intestines.

This guide does not cover the preparation of large mammals, as they are difficult to catch and require a lot of energy to process.

## Cooking
<!-- K: cook, boil, roast, bake, utensil, container, stove -->
<!-- S: You should boil, roast, or bake most foods to avoid getting sick. This will require you to start fire or have a portable stove. -->

Do not try to preserve food you catch, just cook and eat it.

### Stoves
Portable stoves are a convenient way to cook food. They can be fueled by wood, alcohol, or gas. Follow the manufacturer's instructions for use.

Be sure to let the stove cool down before packing it away.

### Boiling

Boiling preserves the most nutrients in food and is the safest method of cooking. You can use a metal container filled with water suspended over a fire or placed onto hot coals. See the Water chapter for more information on boiling water.

### Roasting

Roasting is a quick and easy method of cooking, but you will get fewer nutrients from the food. You can roast food on a stick over a fire or place it on hot coals.

### Baking

You can wrap food in leaves or clay and place it in the coals of a fire to bake it. This method is slower than roasting but preserves more nutrients. Do not skin fish or birds packed with clay, as the skin will stick to the clay and can be removed after cooking.

### Utensils
If you are packing utensils, a spork is a good option. Otherwise, you can use a stick or your hands to handle food. Be sure to wash your hands before eating.

## Preservation
<!-- K: preserve, dry, smoke, freeze, refrigerate, store -->
<!-- S: In a long-term survival situation, you should preserve excess food to avoid spoilage. -->

In most survival scenarios, it's best to consume food as soon as possible to avoid spoilage. In a longer-term scenario, you can use the following methods to preserve food:

- **Sun drying**: Hang or place food on rocks in direct sunlight. Turn the food occasionally to ensure even drying.
- **Smoking**: Hang food over a smoky fire to dry it out. For best results, use a fire with little flame and lots of smoke in a poorly ventilated area.
- **Freezing**: Freeze food in meal-sized portions only if the temperature is consistently below freezing. If the temperature is above freezing, the food may start thawing.
- **Natural refrigeration**: Bury food in snow, underground (lined with grass or leaves), or wrap it in a wet cloth.
- **Live storage**: Store fish in a trap or a pen made of rocks and sticks in a stream. Insects can be stored in a container with holes in the lid.

## Protection
<!-- K: protect, bear, bag, canister, box -->
<!-- S: Use bear bags or canisters to prevent animals from stealing your food. -->

You may need to protect your food from animals. Here are some methods to keep your food safe:

### Bear bags

A bear bag is a bag of food hoisted into a tree to keep it out of reach of bears and other animals.

1. Place food in a bag.
2. Tie a rope to the bag.
3. Throw the rope over a high branch and hoist the bag up.
4. Tie the rope to a tree to keep the bag elevated.

### Bear canisters

A bear canister is a hard plastic container used to store food. It is bear-proof and can be left on the ground.

Some campsites may provide a bear box, which is a large metal box used to store food.

## Craft: Tongs
<!-- K: tongs, craft -->
<!-- S: You can make tongs from green wood. -->

**Resources**
- Green wood

**Instructions**
1. Cut a length of green wood.
2. Split the wood down the middle to create a flat surface.
3. Optionally, carve a small notch in the center of the stick to allow it to bend more easily.
4. Bend the wood in half to create tongs.

<!-- K: food, eat, meal, hunger, hungry, forage, identify, edible, inedible -->
<!-- S: Ration food and forage when there's none left. -->

This chapter covers how to find and prepare food in a survival situation.

## Be prepared
<!-- K: prepare, gear, knowledge, skill, nuts, seeds, dried, fruit, jerky, energy, bar, mre, can, knife, multitool, multi-tool, bag, canister, utensil, stove, fuel -->
<!-- S: Bring extra food. Learn how to find food and cook in the wilderness. -->

### Gear

**Necessities**:
- Food (enough for the duration of your trip, plus a bit extra). Some good options include:
- Nuts
- Seeds
- Dried fruit
- Jerky
- Energy bars
- Dehydrated meals (with extra water)
- Canned food (with a can opener if needed)
- Knife or multi-tool
- Bear bag or canister

**Optional**:
- Cooking pot or container
- Utensils (a spork is a good option)
- Cooking stove and fuel

### Knowledge and skills
Start by learning how to do the following:
- Plan your meals for a trip.
- Cook food by boiling or roasting over a fire.
- Use a bear bag or canister to protect your food.

Once you have mastered these skills, you should learn how to do the following:
- Identify edible plants and mushrooms.
- Find and catch insects, shellfish, crustaceans, fish, and other animals.
- Preserve food.
- Make traps.

## Food essentials
<!-- K: nutrition, caloric, calorie, carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamin, mineral, storage, starvation, ration -->
<!-- S: You need around 2,000 calories per day, but you can ration your food to make it last longer. You should properly store your food to avoid spoilage. -->

### Caloric and nutritional needs
The average person needs around 2,000 calories per day. You should aim to balance carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals in your diet.

- **Carbohydrates**: Provide an immediate source of energy and are found in grains, fruits, and vegetables. Aim for 45–65% of your daily caloric intake.
- **Fats**: Provide long-term energy and are used in essential bodily functions. They are found in meats, oils, nuts, and seeds. Aim for 20–35% of your daily caloric intake.
- **Proteins**: Build and repair tissues and are found in meats, legumes, nuts, and seeds.
- **Vitamins and minerals**: Essential for overall health and are found in most foods, but a varied diet is necessary to ensure you get all the necessary nutrients.

### Storage

Food should be stored in airtight containers to prevent spoilage and contamination. Do not pack foods that spoil quickly or require refrigeration.

### Rationing

If you are in a survival situation, you may need to ration your food to make it last longer. A recommended method is to divide your food into thirds. Eat two-thirds of your food during the first half of the time you expect to be lost and save the last third for the second half. It may be difficult to estimate how long you will be lost, but figure around 2–3 days after your expected return date, assuming you shared your plans with someone.

### Starvation

Starvation occurs when the body does not receive enough nutrients to function properly. Symptoms include:
- Loss of body fat.
- Difficulty breathing.
- Lower body temperature.
- Reduced muscle mass.
- Fatigue.
- Longer healing time for wounds and illnesses.

## Plants and mushrooms
<!-- K: plant, mushroom, seaweed, weeds, green, sap, fungus, forage, poison, toxic, leach, test, berries -->
<!-- S: Only eat plants you can confidently identity as safe and don't eat any mushrooms. Aggregate berries, like raspberries and blackberries, are generally safe. -->

The safest method for consuming wild plants is through positive identification. Before your trip, it's wise to study local plants through guidebooks or plant identification cards.

### Foraging

Key considerations when choosing plants include:

- Plants in or near contaminated water must be washed and cooked to avoid consuming harmful bacteria or chemicals.
- Even within the same species, plants can vary in toxicity due to environmental factors.
- If you are sensitive to allergens like poison ivy, steer clear of similar plants such as mangoes or cashews, which can cause similar reactions.
- Some plants are more nutritious than others. For example, nuts and seeds are high in calories and fats, while leafy greens are high in vitamins and minerals.
- Some plants are fine for animals but toxic to humans.
- Aggregate berries are generally safe. These include raspberries and blackberries.
- Seaweed washed ashore may be spoiled or decayed.
- **Avoid the following**:
- Mushrooms.
- Roadside plants.
- Plants with umbrella-shaped flowers.
- Plants with milky sap.
- Plants with shiny leaves.
- Plants with white, yellow, or red berries.
- Beans, bulbs, or seeds inside pods.
- Plants with a pungent odor.
- Plants with an almond scent in the leaves or woody parts.
- Plants with a bitter or soapy taste.
- Plants with thorns, fine hairs, or spines.
- Plants that resemble dill, carrot, parsnip, or parsley.
- Plants with three-leaved growth patterns.
- Plants with signs of mildew, fungus, or spoilage.

**Edibility testing**

If unsure about a plant and are in **extreme need**, you can use the Universal Edibility Test to determine its safety. This should be a last resort and is not advised, as it can be dangerous. The test is as follows:

1. If the plant has an unpleasant odor, do not proceed.
2. Crush or break part of the plant to check for colored or milky sap. Only proceed if the sap is clear.
3. Touch the plant's sap or juice to the inner forearm. If there are no ill effects, such as a rash or burning sensation, proceed.
4. Place the plant's sap or juice on the outer lip for eight minutes. If there are no ill effects, proceed.
5. Taste a small pinch of the plant and leave it in your mouth for eight minutes. If there's an unpleasant taste or burning sensation, spit it out and rinse your mouth. If there are no ill effects, proceed.
6. Swallow the small pinch of the plant from step 5. Wait eight hours. If there are no ill effects, proceed.
7. Eat a handful of the plant and wait another eight hours. If there are no ill effects, the plant is safe to eat. Exercise restraint when eating large quantities of a new plant, as it may cause digestive issues.

Note that each part of a plant needs to be tested separately, as some parts may be toxic while others are safe.

### Preparation

Wash plants, then cut them into usable pieces. Some plants can be eaten raw, while others need to be cooked.

**Leaching**

Some plants contain toxins that can be removed by leaching. A common example is acorns, which can be shelled and boiled in several changes of water to remove tannins.

## Insects
<!-- K: insect, bug, grub, worm, ant, termite, locust, grasshopper, cricket, dragonfly, bait -->
<!-- S: Most insects can be eaten when cooked or used as fishing bait. -->

Insects are a good source of protein but need to be gathered in large numbers to provide a substantial meal. If you don't want to eat insects, you can use them as bait for fishing or trapping.

### Collection

Good places to find insects include rotting logs, under rocks, and in grassy fields.

Do not eat the following insects:
- Biting or stinging insects.
- Hairy or brightly colored insects.
- Insects with a pungent odor.
- Hairy caterpillars.
- Spiders.
- Ticks.
- Flies.
- Mosquitoes.

Common edible insects include:
- Ants and termites.
- Locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets.
- Dragonflies.
- Worms and grubs.

Many flying insects can be attracted to a light source at night, making them easier to catch.

### Preparation

Remove the following parts before eating insects:
- Stingers.
- Legs.
- Wings.
- Head.

Cook all insects using any of the cooking techniques in this chapter.

Worms can be placed in water for 15 minutes to purge their digestive tracts. After purging, they should be cooked before eating.

## Shellfish and crustaceans
<!-- K: shellfish, crustacean, clam, mussel, snail, limpet, crayfish, lobster, crab, shrimp, shell, bait, basket, trap, seafood, algae, tide, coastal, coast -->
<!-- S: Many shellfish and crustaceans are found along the shoreline and most can be eaten when cooked. -->

Shellfish and crustaceans are a good source of protein and can be found in both freshwater and saltwater. They are relatively easy to catch, so they make a good survival food source.

### Collection

Search shallow waters, tide pools, and rocky areas for shellfish and crustaceans. Snails and limpets can often be found attached to rocks, which may be easier to access during low tide.

In freshwater, crayfish can be located under and around stones in streams or in soft mud during the daytime. You can attach bait to a string and lower it into the water to attract crayfish. Once it grabs the bait, pull it to shore.

In saltwater, lobsters, crabs, and shrimp can be found near the water's edge or in shallow water. Crabs will come to shore if you leave bait at the water's edge, where they can be easily caught. Lobsters and crabs are more active at night, and shrimp are attracted to light.

**Caution**: Mussels may be poisonous in tropical waters during the summer. If a red tide occurred within three days, do not eat fish or shellfish. Do not eat shellfish covered by water during high tide.

### Trapping

A basket fish trap can be used to catch crustaceans. Bait the trap with food and place it in the water. Check the trap every few hours to see if you have caught anything.


For details on how to construct this trap, see the Fish section of this chapter.

### Preparation

Fully cook to kill parasites. Shellfish can be cooked in their shells.

## Fish
<!-- K: fish, hook, line, pole, bait, basket, trap, funnel, kill, seafood, meat -->
<!-- S: Most fish are edible once cooked, but will require some fishing gear. -->

If you are in a longer-term survival situation or have access to fishing gear, fish can be a good source of protein and nutrients.

### Fishing

Fish are most active:
- Before a storm.
- Near rocks or logs.
- Under overhanging brush.

There are no poisonous freshwater fish, but there are some poisonous saltwater fish. Most fish are edible.

**Hooks**

Hooks with barbs are more effective than barbless hooks at keeping fish on the line.

You can craft a hook if needed:

- Wooden hooks: Cut a piece of hardwood, put a notch in one end and secure a sharp object into the notch using cordage.
- Gorge hooks: Carve a piece of wood or bone into the shape shown in the picture below. Tie a line to the middle of the hook and place into bait. When the fish swallows the bait, the hook will lodge in its throat - you do not need to pull the line to set the hook.
- Other hooks: You can use metal wire or thorns as hooks. See the picture below.


**Lines**

If you do not have fishing line, you can make it from plant fibers, inner strands of paracord (using a bend knot to join them together), or other strong cordage.

**Poles**

If you do not have a fishing pole, you can make one from a stick, bamboo, or other materials. You can also wrap the line around a short stick and use it as a hand line.

**Bait**

For best results, bait the hooks using insects, worms, or pieces of food.

**Traps**

You can construct a basket fish trap by weaving together branches or other materials. Bait the trap with food and place it in the water. Check it every few hours. This can also be used to catch crustaceans.

Alternatively, use a funnel fish trap by placing sticks into a V-shape with a retaining area at the end. Fish swim into the trap and are unable to find their way out. In tidal areas, you can set up a wall of stones during low tide; as the tide recedes, fish may get trapped behind the wall.


### Preparation

1. Kill the fish by hitting it on the head with a club or rock. Use a hard, quick blow. You can then use a knife to cut the gills or pierce the brain to ensure the fish is dead.
2. Remove scales by scraping them off with a knife (tail to head).
3. Remove entrails by cutting the belly open and pulling them out. You can also cut off the head and tail to make this easier.
4. Cut into usable pieces or fillet the fish. If it is a small fish, you can also just cook it whole.
5. Cook the fish.

## Other animals
<!-- K: animal, hunt, bow, trap, deadfall, bird, reptile, amphibian, frog, snake, mammal, skin, kill, meat, butcher, skin -->
<!-- S: Hunting or trapping can be energy consuming and difficult without proper tools. -->

In a survival situation, it's best to focus on easier-to-catch animals like insects, shellfish, crustaceans, and fish. But if you have the means to catch other animals, they can provide a good source of protein and nutrients.

### Hunting

**Firearms and bows**

If you have a firearm or bow with you, the odds are that you know how to use it. Aim for the vital organs to ensure a quick kill. It is unlikely you will be able to construct a survival bow that is effective for hunting.

**Clubs**

A club can be as simple as a stick with a heavy end. This can be used to kill fish or other small animals with a quick, forceful blow to the head.

**Spears and gigs**

A spear can be made by sharpening a stick and optionally hardening the tip in a fire. While it can be thrown, it's more effective to use it as a thrusting weapon without experience.

For hunting smaller animals like frogs, a gig can be made by finding a forked stick and sharpening the ends. Optionally, split the ends of a larger stick and insert smaller sticks to keep the split open.

**Throwing sticks and rocks**

In a pinch, you can use a throwing stick or rock to kill or stun small animals. Aim for the head to ensure a quick kill. The throwing stick can be made by finding a stick with a natural curve that has some weight to it. Throw it like you would throw a boomerang.

### Trapping

Traps allow for the passive capture of small animals. They can be set up and left alone while you perform other tasks. Check them every few hours.

Look for signs of animal activity like tracks, droppings, or chewed vegetation. Set up traps in areas where animals are likely to pass through. You can construct funnels or walls to guide animals into them.

Baiting the traps can increase their effectiveness. Use food native to the area that animals are likely to eat. Smoking the traps can help mask your scent.

**Deadfalls**

Deadfall traps are good for catching small animals. They work by dropping a heavy object on the animal when it triggers the trap. The trigger mechanism can be made from a stick and a bait stick. When the animal takes the bait, the trigger releases, causing the heavy object to fall.

Examples of deadfall traps:



Stop cuts are used to prevent wood from splitting when you are cutting it. To make a stop cut, make a small cut perpendicular to the grain of the wood where you want to stop the cut. This cut should be about 1/3 of the way through the wood. You can baton the knife to form a stop cut by placing the knife where you want to make the cut and hitting it with a stick - only do this on full tang knives.

### Birds

Without a firearm or bow, birds can be difficult to catch. They are most easily caught at night when roosting. Use a club, throwing stick, or rock to kill or stun the bird.

Also, look for bird nests, as they may contain eggs.

To prepare a bird for cooking:

1. Pluck feathers. You can place the bird in boiling water to make this easier. Optionally, you can skin the bird instead, but that removes some of the fat.
2. Cut open the body cavity and remove the entrails.
3. For larger birds, cut off the feet and separate the bird into usable pieces along the joints.
4. Cook the bird.

**Notes**:

- Sea birds should be skinned rather than plucked to remove oil glands.
- Scavenger birds, such as vultures, should be boiled for at least 20 minutes to kill parasites.

### Reptiles and amphibians

Reptiles and amphibians are easier to catch than mammals and birds. They can be found moving across open ground. Use a gig or pin them down with a stick behind the head.

Frogs can be caught near water sources using a gig.

Traps with bait may also be effective for catching reptiles and amphibians.

To clean a snake:

1. Cut off the head and bury it to avoid accidentally stepping on it.
2. Slit the belly and remove the entrails.
3. Skin the snake and cut it into usable pieces.


Always wash your hands after handling reptiles and amphibians, as they can carry salmonella. Cook the meat thoroughly.

**Do not eat the following**:
- Box turtles.
- Hawksbill turtles.
- Brightly colored frogs.
- Frogs with an X on their back.
- Tree frogs.
- Toads.
- Salamanders.

### Small mammals

Small mammals can be caught using traps. They can also be caught using a club, throwing stick, or rock.

To prepare a small mammal for cooking:

1. Make cuts down the insides of the back legs.
2. Pull the skin off the body like a glove. You'll need to sever the head and front feet to remove the skin.
3. Cut open the abdominal cavity and remove the entrails. Be careful not to puncture the intestines.

This guide does not cover the preparation of large mammals, as they are difficult to catch and require a lot of energy to process.

## Cooking
<!-- K: cook, boil, roast, bake, utensil, container, stove -->
<!-- S: You should boil, roast, or bake most foods to avoid getting sick. This will require you to start fire or have a portable stove. -->

### Stoves
Portable stoves are a convenient way to cook food. They can be fueled by wood, alcohol, or gas. Follow the manufacturer's instructions for use.

Be sure to let the stove cool down before packing it away.

### Boiling

Boiling preserves the most nutrients in food and is the safest method of cooking. You can use a metal container filled with water suspended over a fire or placed onto hot coals. See the Water chapter for more information on boiling water.

### Roasting

Roasting is a quick and easy method of cooking, but you will get fewer nutrients from the food. You can roast food on a stick over a fire or place it on hot coals.

### Baking

You can wrap food in leaves or clay and place it in the coals of a fire to bake it. This method is slower than roasting but preserves more nutrients. Do not skin fish or birds packed with clay, as the skin will stick to the clay and can be removed after cooking.

### Utensils
If you are packing utensils, a spork is a good option. Otherwise, you can use a stick or your hands to handle food. Be sure to wash your hands before eating.

## Preservation
<!-- K: preserve, dry, smoke, freeze, refrigerate, store -->
<!-- S: In a long-term survival situation, you should preserve excess food to avoid spoilage. -->

In most survival scenarios, it's best to consume food as soon as possible to avoid spoilage. In a longer-term scenario, you can use the following methods to preserve food:

- **Sun drying**: Hang or place food on rocks in direct sunlight. Turn the food occasionally to ensure even drying.
- **Smoking**: Hang food over a smoky fire to dry it out. For best results, use a fire with little flame and lots of smoke in a poorly ventilated area.
- **Freezing**: Freeze food in meal-sized portions only if the temperature is consistently below freezing. If the temperature is above freezing, the food may start thawing.
- **Natural refrigeration**: Bury food in snow, underground (lined with grass or leaves), or wrap it in a wet cloth.
- **Live storage**: Store fish in a trap or a pen made of rocks and sticks in a stream. Insects can be stored in a container with holes in the lid.

## Protection
<!-- K: protect, bear, bag, canister, box -->
<!-- S: Use bear bags or canisters to prevent animals from stealing your food. -->

You may need to protect your food from animals. Here are some methods to keep your food safe:

### Bear bags

A bear bag is a bag of food hoisted into a tree to keep it out of reach of bears and other animals.

1. Place food in a bag.
2. Tie a rope to the bag.
3. Throw the rope over a high branch and hoist the bag up.
4. Tie the rope to a tree to keep the bag elevated.

### Bear canisters

A bear canister is a hard plastic container used to store food. It is bear-proof and can be left on the ground.

Some campsites may provide a bear box, which is a large metal box used to store food.

## Craft: Tongs
<!-- K: tongs, craft -->
<!-- S: You can make tongs from green wood. -->

**Resources**
- Green wood

**Instructions**
1. Cut a length of green wood.
2. Split the wood down the middle to create a flat surface.
3. Optionally, carve a small notch in the center of the stick to allow it to bend more easily.
4. Bend the wood in half to create tongs.