2. Trail Sense
3. Trail Sense User Guide
4. English

<!-- K: food, eat, meal, hunger, hungry, forage, identify, edible, inedible -->
<!-- S: Ration food and forage when there's none left. -->

Food gives you energy but is a low priority in most survival situations since you can go weeks without it. If you haven't eaten in a while, focus on foraging for bugs, shellfish, and aggregate berries.

## Be prepared
<!-- K: prepare, gear, knowledge, skill, nuts, seeds, dried, fruit, jerky, energy, bar, mre, can, knife, multitool, multitool, bag, canister, utensil, stove, fuel -->
<!-- S: Bring extra food. Learn how to find food and cook in the wilderness. -->

### Gear

**Necessities**:
- Food (enough for the duration of your trip, plus a bit extra). Some good options include:
- Nuts
- Seeds
- Dried fruit
- Jerky
- Energy bars
- Dehydrated meals (with extra water)
- Canned food (with a can opener if needed)
- Knife or multitool
- Bear bag or canister

**Optional**:
- Cooking pot or container
- Utensils (a spork is a good option)
- Cooking stove and fuel

### Knowledge and skills
Start by learning how to do the following:
- Plan your meals for a trip.
- Cook food by boiling or roasting over a fire.
- Use a bear bag or canister to protect your food.

Once you have mastered these skills, you should learn how to do the following:
- Identify edible plants and mushrooms.
- Find and catch insects, shellfish, crustaceans, fish, and other animals.
- Preserve food.
- Make traps.

## Food essentials
<!-- K: nutrition, caloric, calorie, carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamin, mineral, storage, starvation, ration -->
<!-- S: You need around 2,000 calories daily, but you can ration your food to make it last longer. You should properly store your food to avoid spoilage. -->

### Caloric and nutritional needs
The average person needs around 2,000 calories per day. Balance carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals in your diet.

- **Carbohydrates**: Provide an immediate source of energy and are found in grains, fruits, and vegetables. Aim for 45–65% of your daily caloric intake.
- **Fats**: Provide long-term energy and are used in essential bodily functions. They are found in meats, oils, nuts, and seeds. Aim for 20–35% of your daily caloric intake.
- **Proteins**: Build and repair tissues and are found in meats, legumes, nuts, and seeds.
- **Vitamins and minerals**: Essential for overall health and are found in most foods, but a varied diet is necessary to ensure you get all the essential nutrients.

### Storage

Food should be stored in airtight containers to prevent spoilage and contamination. Do not pack foods that spoil quickly or require refrigeration. If you bring zipper storage bags, you can also use them for water procurement.

### Rationing

If you are in a survival situation, ration your food to make it last longer. Eat two-thirds of your food in the first half of your survival situation (about 2-3 days after your expected return date) and the remaining third in the following days. Eating food will give you the energy to construct a shelter and plan.

### Starvation

Starvation occurs when the body does not receive enough nutrients to function correctly. Symptoms include loss of body fat, difficulty breathing, feeling colder, fatigue, and increased healing times.

## Plants and mushrooms
<!-- K: plant, mushroom, seaweed, weeds, green, sap, fungus, forage, poison, toxic, leach, berries -->
<!-- S: Only eat plants you can confidently identify as safe, and don't eat mushrooms. Aggregate berries, like raspberries and blackberries, are generally safe. -->

Plants typically have fewer calories than animals but can be easier to obtain if you can identify them. If you can't identify which plants are safe, just focus on bugs and shellfish. You should also avoid mushrooms unless you are experienced in foraging, since many can make you sick. Familiarize yourself with local plants and mushrooms before your trip.

### Foraging

The safest plant to forage is aggregate berries, such as raspberries and blackberries, since they have a distinctive look and are generally edible. Nuts and seeds are higher in calories than leafy greens, but some nuts, such as acorns, require multiple batches of boiling. Also, just because you see an animal eating a plant doesn't mean it is safe for human consumption. Never eat a plant you aren't certain is edible; even if you are certain, only eat a small amount and be on the lookout for side effects.

**The following should be avoided as the risk isn't worth the calories:**
- Mushrooms
- Plants that have:
- Umbrella-shaped flowers
- Milky sap
- Shiny leaves
- White, yellow, or red berries (except aggregate berries)
- Beans, bulbs, or seeds inside pods
- Pungent odor
- An almond/cyanide scent in the leaves or wood
- Bitter or soapy taste
- Thorns, hairs, or spines
- A three-leaved growth pattern
- Mildew or fungus
- Plants that look like dill, carrot, parsnip, or parsley
- Spoiled plants/mushrooms/seaweed
- Anything growing alongside a road or in dirty water

### Preparation

All plants you gather should be washed and cooked. Many can be eaten raw, but if you have the means to cook them, it will be safer to avoid the risk of contamination.

## Insects
<!-- K: insect, bug, grub, worm, ant, termite, locust, grasshopper, cricket, dragonfly, bait -->
<!-- S: Most insects can be eaten when cooked or used as fishing bait. -->

Insects are a good source of protein but need to be gathered in large numbers to provide a substantial meal. If you don't want to eat insects, you can use them as bait for fishing or trapping.

### Collection

Good places to find insects include rotting logs, under rocks, and in grassy fields. Common edible bugs include ants, termites, locusts, grasshoppers, crickets, dragonflies, grubs, and worms. At night, many flying insects can be attracted to a light source.

Do not eat the following:
- Biting or stinging insects
- Hairy or brightly colored insects
- Insects with a pungent odor
- Hairy caterpillars
- Spiders
- Anything that feeds off blood, such as ticks, flies, and mosquitoes

### Preparation

To prepare bugs for cooking, remove any stingers and optionally the legs, wings, and head before eating. You should cook all bugs before eating them. Worms can be placed in water for 15 minutes to purge their digestive tracts before cooking.

## Shellfish and crustaceans
<!-- K: shellfish, crustacean, clam, mussel, snail, limpet, crayfish, lobster, crab, shrimp, shell, bait, basket, trap, seafood, algae, tide, coastal, coast -->
<!-- S: Many shellfish and crustaceans are found along the shoreline; most can be eaten when cooked. -->

Shellfish and crustaceans are good sources of protein and can be found in both freshwater and saltwater. They are relatively easy to catch, making them good survival food sources.

### Collection

Search shallow waters, tide pools, and rocky areas for shellfish and crustaceans. Snails and limpets are often attached to rocks, which may be easier to access during low tide. Crayfish, lobsters, and crabs can be found under and around stones, in soft mud or sand, and may be more active at night. Crustaceans can be caught by attaching bait onto a line (no hook required, they'll grab it), baiting the shoreline and waiting for them to leave the water, or using a fish basket trap with bait.

Some shellfish may be poisonous, and be especially cautious of mussels in tropical waters during the summer, any shellfish within three days of a red tide, or shellfish covered by water during high tide.

### Preparation

You should cook all shellfish and crustaceans before eating. You can cook them in their shells.

## Fish
<!-- K: fish, hook, line, pole, bait, basket, trap, funnel, kill, seafood, meat -->
<!-- S: Most fish are edible once cooked but will require some fishing gear. -->

If you are in a longer-term survival situation or have access to fishing gear, fish can be a good source of protein and nutrients. Most fish are edible, but research which fish may be dangerous in your area.

### Fishing

Fish are most active before a storm, near rocks or logs, and under overhanging brush.

**Hook and line**

Fishing with a hook and line is likely your most familiar technique. You will need to secure a hook onto a line and optionally tie it to a pole. You can use the following knot to tie the hook to the line. Use a wet finger to help tighten it to the hook.


Hooks with barbs are more effective than barbless hooks at keeping fish on the line. For best results, bait the hooks using insects, worms, or pieces of food. If you need to craft a hook, go with a gorge hook since it is easy to make and doesn't need to be set manually. One downside is that any fish caught with a gorge hook will almost certainly die if released. To carve a gorge hook, sharpen both sides of a small section of wood or bone and taper it at the center. Place the hook into the bait.


If you do not have fishing line, you can make it from plant fibers, inner strands of paracord (using a bend knot to join them together), or other strong cordage.

If you do not have a fishing pole, you can tie the line to both the base and tip of a sturdy stick - try to mimic what an actual fishing pole looks like. You can also wrap the line around a short stick and use it as a hand line. An easier technique may be to tie the line to a tree branch so you can do other things and check it frequently.

**Traps**

You can construct a basket fish trap by weaving branches or other materials together. Bait the trap with food and place it in the water. Check it every few hours. This can also be used to catch crustaceans.

Alternatively, use a funnel fish trap by placing sticks into a V-shape with a retaining area at the end. Fish swim into the trap and are unable to find their way out. In tidal areas, you can set up a wall of stones during low tide; as the tide recedes, fish may get trapped behind the wall.


### Preparation

1. Once you catch a fish, bring it away from the shoreline. Do not hold or place it near the water before killing it, as it may flop back in.
2. Stun the fish by hitting it hard on the head with a club or rock. Then use a knife to cut the gills or pierce the brain to ensure it is dead.
3. Remove scales by scraping them off with a knife (tail to head).
4. Cut open the belly and remove the entrails. You can also cut off the head and tail to make this easier.
5. Cut the fish into usable pieces or fillet it. If it is small, you can cook it whole.
6. Cook the fish.

## Other animals
<!-- K: animal, hunt, bow, trap, deadfall, bird, reptile, amphibian, frog, snake, mammal, skin, kill, meat, butcher, skin -->
<!-- S: Hunting or trapping can be energy-consuming and difficult without proper tools. -->

In a survival situation, it's best to focus on easier-to-catch animals like insects, shellfish, crustaceans, and fish. But if you have the means to catch other animals, they can provide a good source of protein and nutrients. Unless you are a hunter with proper gear, do not try to hunt large animals.

### Hunting

**Clubs**

A club can be as simple as a stick with a heavy end. This can kill or stun fish or other small animals with a quick, forceful blow to the head.

**Spears**

A spear can be made by sharpening a stick. Unless you have experience, it's best to stab with the spear rather than throw it. To make it easier to hit your target, you can construct multiple spear points using a forked branch.

**Throwing sticks and rocks**

In a pinch, you can throw a heavy stick or rock to kill or stun small animals. Aim for the head to ensure a quick kill.

### Trapping

Traps allow for the passive capture of small animals. They can be set up and left alone while you perform other tasks. Check them every few hours. Look for signs of animal activity like tracks, droppings, or chewed vegetation. Set up traps in areas where animals are likely to pass through. You can construct funnels or walls to guide animals into them. Baiting the traps can increase their effectiveness. Smoking the traps can help mask your scent.

**Deadfalls**

Deadfall traps work by dropping a heavy object on the animal when it triggers the trap. The trigger mechanism can be made from a stick and a bait stick. The trigger is released when the animal takes the bait, causing the heavy object to fall. Place one or more of these traps near your shelter to catch mice.


1. Support stick (front / side)
2. Release stick (front / side)
3. Bait stick (front / side)
4. Bait
5. Rock

### Birds

Birds are most easily caught at night when roosting, or you can eat eggs from nests. Use a club, throwing stick, or rock to kill or stun the bird.

To prepare a bird for cooking:

1. Pluck feathers. To make this easier, place the bird in boiling water. Optionally, you can skin the bird, but that removes some fat.
2. Cut open the body cavity and remove the entrails.
3. For larger birds, cut off the feet and separate the bird into usable pieces along the joints.
4. Cook the bird.

If you catch a seabird, skin it instead of plucking the feathers to remove the oil glands. If you catch a scavenger bird like a vulture, boil it for at least 20 minutes to kill parasites.

### Reptiles and amphibians

Reptiles and amphibians are easier to catch than mammals and birds. Many can be found basking in open ground, on logs, or at the water's edge. Use a multi-pointed spear or pin them down with a stick behind the head.

Always wash your hands after handling reptiles and amphibians, as they can carry salmonella. Cook the meat thoroughly.

**Do not eat the following**:
- Box turtles
- Hawksbill turtles
- Brightly colored frogs
- Frogs with an X on their back
- Tree frogs
- Toads
- Salamanders
- Snakes: they are edible but may be dangerous to catch
- If you kill a snake, cut off and bury its head before cleaning. Never touch the head with your hands; use sticks instead.

### Small mammals

Small mammals can be caught using traps, clubs, throwing sticks, or rocks.

To prepare a small mammal for cooking:

1. Make cuts down the insides of the back legs.
2. Pull the skin off the body like a glove. You'll need to sever the head and front feet to remove the skin.
3. Cut open the abdominal cavity and remove the entrails. Be careful not to puncture the intestines.

This guide does not cover the preparation of large mammals, as they are challenging to catch and require a lot of energy to process.

## Cooking
<!-- K: cook, boil, roast, bake, utensil, container, stove -->
<!-- S: To avoid getting sick, boil, roast, or bake most foods. This will require you to start a fire or have a portable stove. -->

Do not try to preserve the food you catch; just cook and eat it.

### Stoves

Portable stoves are convenient ways to cook food. They can be fueled by wood, alcohol, or gas. Follow the manufacturer's instructions for use. You'll most likely use this to boil water rather than cook the food directly on the flame. Be sure to let the stove cool down before packing it away.

### Boiling

Boiling preserves the most nutrients in food and is the safest cooking method. A metal container filled with water can be suspended over a fire or placed onto hot coals. See the Water chapter for more information on boiling water.

### Roasting

Roasting is a quick and easy cooking method, but the food is less nutritious. You can roast food on a stick over a fire or place it on hot coals.

### Baking

You can wrap food in leaves or clay and place it in the coals of a fire to bake it. This method is slower than roasting but preserves more nutrients. Do not skin fish or birds packed with clay; the skin will stick to the clay and can be removed after cooking.

### Utensils

If you are packing utensils, a spork is a good option. Otherwise, you can handle food with a stick or your hands. Be sure to wash your hands before and after eating.

## Protection
<!-- K: protect, bear, bag, canister, box -->
<!-- S: Use bear bags or canisters to prevent animals from stealing your food. -->

You may need to protect your food from animals. Here are some methods to keep your food safe:

### Bear bags

A bear bag is a bag of food hoisted into a tree to keep it out of reach of bears and other animals. Find a tree with a branch about 20 feet (6 meters) off the ground and thick enough to support the weight of your food at about 10 feet (3 meters) from the trunk.

1. Place food in a bag.
2. Tie a rope to the bag.
3. Throw the other end of the rope over a branch. To give the line weight, attach a short stick to the end of it. Secure the stick with a clove hitch or jam knot.
4. Hoist the bag about 15 feet (4.5 meters) above the ground.
5. Tie the rope to a tree to keep the bag elevated. Use either a hitch or bowline knot.

See the Shelter and Clothing chapter for details on how to tie knots.

### Bear canisters

A bear canister is a rigid plastic container used to store food. It is bear-proof and can be left on the ground. Some campsites may provide a bear box, a large metal box used to store food.

<!-- K: food, eat, meal, hunger, hungry, forage, identify, edible, inedible -->
<!-- S: Ration food and forage when there's none left. -->

Food gives you energy but is a low priority in most survival situations since you can go weeks without it. If you haven't eaten in a while, focus on foraging for bugs, shellfish, and aggregate berries.

## Be prepared
<!-- K: prepare, gear, knowledge, skill, nuts, seeds, dried, fruit, jerky, energy, bar, mre, can, knife, multitool, multitool, bag, canister, utensil, stove, fuel -->
<!-- S: Bring extra food. Learn how to find food and cook in the wilderness. -->

### Gear

**Necessities**:
- Food (enough for the duration of your trip, plus a bit extra). Some good options include:
- Nuts
- Seeds
- Dried fruit
- Jerky
- Energy bars
- Dehydrated meals (with extra water)
- Canned food (with a can opener if needed)
- Knife or multitool
- Bear bag or canister

**Optional**:
- Cooking pot or container
- Utensils (a spork is a good option)
- Cooking stove and fuel

### Knowledge and skills
Start by learning how to do the following:
- Plan your meals for a trip.
- Cook food by boiling or roasting over a fire.
- Use a bear bag or canister to protect your food.

Once you have mastered these skills, you should learn how to do the following:
- Identify edible plants and mushrooms.
- Find and catch insects, shellfish, crustaceans, fish, and other animals.
- Preserve food.
- Make traps.

## Food essentials
<!-- K: nutrition, caloric, calorie, carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamin, mineral, storage, starvation, ration -->
<!-- S: You need around 2,000 calories daily, but you can ration your food to make it last longer. You should properly store your food to avoid spoilage. -->

### Caloric and nutritional needs
The average person needs around 2,000 calories per day. Balance carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals in your diet.

- **Carbohydrates**: Provide an immediate source of energy and are found in grains, fruits, and vegetables. Aim for 45–65% of your daily caloric intake.
- **Fats**: Provide long-term energy and are used in essential bodily functions. They are found in meats, oils, nuts, and seeds. Aim for 20–35% of your daily caloric intake.
- **Proteins**: Build and repair tissues and are found in meats, legumes, nuts, and seeds.
- **Vitamins and minerals**: Essential for overall health and are found in most foods, but a varied diet is necessary to ensure you get all the essential nutrients.

### Storage

Food should be stored in airtight containers to prevent spoilage and contamination. Do not pack foods that spoil quickly or require refrigeration. If you bring zipper storage bags, you can also use them for water procurement.

### Rationing

If you are in a survival situation, ration your food to make it last longer. Eat two-thirds of your food in the first half of your survival situation (about 2-3 days after your expected return date) and the remaining third in the following days. Eating food will give you the energy to construct a shelter and plan.

### Starvation

Starvation occurs when the body does not receive enough nutrients to function correctly. Symptoms include loss of body fat, difficulty breathing, feeling colder, fatigue, and increased healing times.

## Plants and mushrooms
<!-- K: plant, mushroom, seaweed, weeds, green, sap, fungus, forage, poison, toxic, leach, berries -->
<!-- S: Only eat plants you can confidently identify as safe, and don't eat mushrooms. Aggregate berries, like raspberries and blackberries, are generally safe. -->

Plants typically have fewer calories than animals but can be easier to obtain if you can identify them. If you can't identify which plants are safe, just focus on bugs and shellfish. You should also avoid mushrooms unless you are experienced in foraging, since many can make you sick. Familiarize yourself with local plants and mushrooms before your trip.

### Foraging

The safest plant to forage is aggregate berries, such as raspberries and blackberries, since they have a distinctive look and are generally edible. Nuts and seeds are higher in calories than leafy greens, but some nuts, such as acorns, require multiple batches of boiling. Also, just because you see an animal eating a plant doesn't mean it is safe for human consumption. Never eat a plant you aren't certain is edible; even if you are certain, only eat a small amount and be on the lookout for side effects.

**The following should be avoided as the risk isn't worth the calories:**
- Mushrooms
- Plants that have:
- Umbrella-shaped flowers
- Milky sap
- Shiny leaves
- White, yellow, or red berries (except aggregate berries)
- Beans, bulbs, or seeds inside pods
- Pungent odor
- An almond/cyanide scent in the leaves or wood
- Bitter or soapy taste
- Thorns, hairs, or spines
- A three-leaved growth pattern
- Mildew or fungus
- Plants that look like dill, carrot, parsnip, or parsley
- Spoiled plants/mushrooms/seaweed
- Anything growing alongside a road or in dirty water

### Preparation

All plants you gather should be washed and cooked. Many can be eaten raw, but if you have the means to cook them, it will be safer to avoid the risk of contamination.

## Insects
<!-- K: insect, bug, grub, worm, ant, termite, locust, grasshopper, cricket, dragonfly, bait -->
<!-- S: Most insects can be eaten when cooked or used as fishing bait. -->

Insects are a good source of protein but need to be gathered in large numbers to provide a substantial meal. If you don't want to eat insects, you can use them as bait for fishing or trapping.

### Collection

Good places to find insects include rotting logs, under rocks, and in grassy fields. Common edible bugs include ants, termites, locusts, grasshoppers, crickets, dragonflies, grubs, and worms. At night, many flying insects can be attracted to a light source.

Do not eat the following:
- Biting or stinging insects
- Hairy or brightly colored insects
- Insects with a pungent odor
- Hairy caterpillars
- Spiders
- Anything that feeds off blood, such as ticks, flies, and mosquitoes

### Preparation

To prepare bugs for cooking, remove any stingers and optionally the legs, wings, and head before eating. You should cook all bugs before eating them. Worms can be placed in water for 15 minutes to purge their digestive tracts before cooking.

## Shellfish and crustaceans
<!-- K: shellfish, crustacean, clam, mussel, snail, limpet, crayfish, lobster, crab, shrimp, shell, bait, basket, trap, seafood, algae, tide, coastal, coast -->
<!-- S: Many shellfish and crustaceans are found along the shoreline; most can be eaten when cooked. -->

Shellfish and crustaceans are good sources of protein and can be found in both freshwater and saltwater. They are relatively easy to catch, making them good survival food sources.

### Collection

Search shallow waters, tide pools, and rocky areas for shellfish and crustaceans. Snails and limpets are often attached to rocks, which may be easier to access during low tide. Crayfish, lobsters, and crabs can be found under and around stones, in soft mud or sand, and may be more active at night. Crustaceans can be caught by attaching bait onto a line (no hook required, they'll grab it), baiting the shoreline and waiting for them to leave the water, or using a fish basket trap with bait.

Some shellfish may be poisonous, and be especially cautious of mussels in tropical waters during the summer, any shellfish within three days of a red tide, or shellfish covered by water during high tide.

### Preparation

You should cook all shellfish and crustaceans before eating. You can cook them in their shells.

## Fish
<!-- K: fish, hook, line, pole, bait, basket, trap, funnel, kill, seafood, meat -->
<!-- S: Most fish are edible once cooked but will require some fishing gear. -->

If you are in a longer-term survival situation or have access to fishing gear, fish can be a good source of protein and nutrients. Most fish are edible, but research which fish may be dangerous in your area.

### Fishing

Fish are most active before a storm, near rocks or logs, and under overhanging brush.

**Hook and line**

Fishing with a hook and line is likely your most familiar technique. You will need to secure a hook onto a line and optionally tie it to a pole. You can use the following knot to tie the hook to the line. Use a wet finger to help tighten it to the hook.


Hooks with barbs are more effective than barbless hooks at keeping fish on the line. For best results, bait the hooks using insects, worms, or pieces of food. If you need to craft a hook, go with a gorge hook since it is easy to make and doesn't need to be set manually. One downside is that any fish caught with a gorge hook will almost certainly die if released. To carve a gorge hook, sharpen both sides of a small section of wood or bone and taper it at the center. Place the hook into the bait.


If you do not have fishing line, you can make it from plant fibers, inner strands of paracord (using a bend knot to join them together), or other strong cordage.

If you do not have a fishing pole, you can tie the line to both the base and tip of a sturdy stick - try to mimic what an actual fishing pole looks like. You can also wrap the line around a short stick and use it as a hand line. An easier technique may be to tie the line to a tree branch so you can do other things and check it frequently.

**Traps**

You can construct a basket fish trap by weaving branches or other materials together. Bait the trap with food and place it in the water. Check it every few hours. This can also be used to catch crustaceans.

Alternatively, use a funnel fish trap by placing sticks into a V-shape with a retaining area at the end. Fish swim into the trap and are unable to find their way out. In tidal areas, you can set up a wall of stones during low tide; as the tide recedes, fish may get trapped behind the wall.


### Preparation

1. Once you catch a fish, bring it away from the shoreline. Do not hold or place it near the water before killing it, as it may flop back in.
2. Stun the fish by hitting it hard on the head with a club or rock. Then use a knife to cut the gills or pierce the brain to ensure it is dead.
3. Remove scales by scraping them off with a knife (tail to head).
4. Cut open the belly and remove the entrails. You can also cut off the head and tail to make this easier.
5. Cut the fish into usable pieces or fillet it. If it is small, you can cook it whole.
6. Cook the fish.

## Other animals
<!-- K: animal, hunt, bow, trap, deadfall, bird, reptile, amphibian, frog, snake, mammal, skin, kill, meat, butcher, skin -->
<!-- S: Hunting or trapping can be energy-consuming and difficult without proper tools. -->

In a survival situation, it's best to focus on easier-to-catch animals like insects, shellfish, crustaceans, and fish. But if you have the means to catch other animals, they can provide a good source of protein and nutrients. Unless you are a hunter with proper gear, do not try to hunt large animals.

### Hunting

**Clubs**

A club can be as simple as a stick with a heavy end. This can kill or stun fish or other small animals with a quick, forceful blow to the head.

**Spears**

A spear can be made by sharpening a stick. Unless you have experience, it's best to stab with the spear rather than throw it. To make it easier to hit your target, you can construct multiple spear points using a forked branch.

**Throwing sticks and rocks**

In a pinch, you can throw a heavy stick or rock to kill or stun small animals. Aim for the head to ensure a quick kill.

### Trapping

Traps allow for the passive capture of small animals. They can be set up and left alone while you perform other tasks. Check them every few hours. Look for signs of animal activity like tracks, droppings, or chewed vegetation. Set up traps in areas where animals are likely to pass through. You can construct funnels or walls to guide animals into them. Baiting the traps can increase their effectiveness. Smoking the traps can help mask your scent.

**Deadfalls**

Deadfall traps work by dropping a heavy object on the animal when it triggers the trap. The trigger mechanism can be made from a stick and a bait stick. The trigger is released when the animal takes the bait, causing the heavy object to fall. Place one or more of these traps near your shelter to catch mice.


1. Support stick (front / side)
2. Release stick (front / side)
3. Bait stick (front / side)
4. Bait
5. Rock



### Birds

Birds are most easily caught at night when roosting, or you can eat eggs from nests. Use a club, throwing stick, or rock to kill or stun the bird.

To prepare a bird for cooking:

1. Pluck feathers. To make this easier, place the bird in boiling water. Optionally, you can skin the bird, but that removes some fat.
2. Cut open the body cavity and remove the entrails.
3. For larger birds, cut off the feet and separate the bird into usable pieces along the joints.
4. Cook the bird.

If you catch a seabird, skin it instead of plucking the feathers to remove the oil glands. If you catch a scavenger bird like a vulture, boil it for at least 20 minutes to kill parasites.

### Reptiles and amphibians

Reptiles and amphibians are easier to catch than mammals and birds. Many can be found basking in open ground, on logs, or at the water's edge. Use a multi-pointed spear or pin them down with a stick behind the head.

Always wash your hands after handling reptiles and amphibians, as they can carry salmonella. Cook the meat thoroughly.

**Do not eat the following**:
- Box turtles
- Hawksbill turtles
- Brightly colored frogs
- Frogs with an X on their back
- Tree frogs
- Toads
- Salamanders
- Snakes: they are edible but may be dangerous to catch
- If you kill a snake, cut off and bury its head before cleaning. Never touch the head with your hands; use sticks instead.

### Small mammals

Small mammals can be caught using traps, clubs, throwing sticks, or rocks.

To prepare a small mammal for cooking:

1. Make cuts down the insides of the back legs.
2. Pull the skin off the body like a glove. You'll need to sever the head and front feet to remove the skin.
3. Cut open the abdominal cavity and remove the entrails. Be careful not to puncture the intestines.

This guide does not cover the preparation of large mammals, as they are challenging to catch and require a lot of energy to process.

## Cooking
<!-- K: cook, boil, roast, bake, utensil, container, stove -->
<!-- S: To avoid getting sick, boil, roast, or bake most foods. This will require you to start a fire or have a portable stove. -->

Do not try to preserve the food you catch; just cook and eat it.

### Stoves

Portable stoves are convenient ways to cook food. They can be fueled by wood, alcohol, or gas. Follow the manufacturer's instructions for use. You'll most likely use this to boil water rather than cook the food directly on the flame. Be sure to let the stove cool down before packing it away.

### Boiling

Boiling preserves the most nutrients in food and is the safest cooking method. A metal container filled with water can be suspended over a fire or placed onto hot coals. See the Water chapter for more information on boiling water.

### Roasting

Roasting is a quick and easy cooking method, but the food is less nutritious. You can roast food on a stick over a fire or place it on hot coals.

### Baking

You can wrap food in leaves or clay and place it in the coals of a fire to bake it. This method is slower than roasting but preserves more nutrients. Do not skin fish or birds packed with clay; the skin will stick to the clay and can be removed after cooking.

### Utensils

If you are packing utensils, a spork is a good option. Otherwise, you can handle food with a stick or your hands. Be sure to wash your hands before and after eating.

## Protection
<!-- K: protect, bear, bag, canister, box -->
<!-- S: Use bear bags or canisters to prevent animals from stealing your food. -->

You may need to protect your food from animals. Here are some methods to keep your food safe:

### Bear bags

A bear bag is a bag of food hoisted into a tree to keep it out of reach of bears and other animals. Find a tree with a branch about 20 feet (6 meters) off the ground and thick enough to support the weight of your food at about 10 feet (3 meters) from the trunk.

1. Place food in a bag.
2. Tie a rope to the bag.
3. Throw the other end of the rope over a branch. To give the line weight, attach a short stick to the end of it. Secure the stick with a clove hitch or jam knot.
4. Hoist the bag about 15 feet (4.5 meters) above the ground.
5. Tie the rope to a tree to keep the bag elevated. Use either a hitch or bowline knot.

See the Shelter and Clothing chapter for details on how to tie knots.

### Bear canisters

A bear canister is a rigid plastic container used to store food. It is bear-proof and can be left on the ground. Some campsites may provide a bear box, a large metal box used to store food.

<!-- K: food, eat, meal, hunger, hungry, forage, identify, edible, inedible -->
<!-- S: Ration food and forage when there's none left. -->

Food gives you energy but is a low priority in most survival situations since you can go weeks without it. If you haven't eaten in a while, focus on foraging for bugs, shellfish, and aggregate berries.

## Be prepared
<!-- K: prepare, gear, knowledge, skill, nuts, seeds, dried, fruit, jerky, energy, bar, mre, can, knife, multitool, multitool, bag, canister, utensil, stove, fuel -->
<!-- S: Bring extra food. Learn how to find food and cook in the wilderness. -->

### Gear

**Necessities**:
- Food (enough for the duration of your trip, plus a bit extra). Some good options include:
- Nuts
- Seeds
- Dried fruit
- Jerky
- Energy bars
- Dehydrated meals (with extra water)
- Canned food (with a can opener if needed)
- Knife or multitool
- Bear bag or canister

**Optional**:
- Cooking pot or container
- Utensils (a spork is a good option)
- Cooking stove and fuel

### Knowledge and skills
Start by learning how to do the following:
- Plan your meals for a trip.
- Cook food by boiling or roasting over a fire.
- Use a bear bag or canister to protect your food.

Once you have mastered these skills, you should learn how to do the following:
- Identify edible plants and mushrooms.
- Find and catch insects, shellfish, crustaceans, fish, and other animals.
- Preserve food.
- Make traps.

## Food essentials
<!-- K: nutrition, caloric, calorie, carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamin, mineral, storage, starvation, ration -->
<!-- S: You need around 2,000 calories daily, but you can ration your food to make it last longer. You should properly store your food to avoid spoilage. -->

### Caloric and nutritional needs
The average person needs around 2,000 calories per day. Balance carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals in your diet.

- **Carbohydrates**: Provide an immediate source of energy and are found in grains, fruits, and vegetables. Aim for 45–65% of your daily caloric intake.
- **Fats**: Provide long-term energy and are used in essential bodily functions. They are found in meats, oils, nuts, and seeds. Aim for 20–35% of your daily caloric intake.
- **Proteins**: Build and repair tissues and are found in meats, legumes, nuts, and seeds.
- **Vitamins and minerals**: Essential for overall health and are found in most foods, but a varied diet is necessary to ensure you get all the essential nutrients.

### Storage

Food should be stored in airtight containers to prevent spoilage and contamination. Do not pack foods that spoil quickly or require refrigeration. If you bring zipper storage bags, you can also use them for water procurement.

### Rationing

If you are in a survival situation, ration your food to make it last longer. Eat two-thirds of your food in the first half of your survival situation (about 2-3 days after your expected return date) and the remaining third in the following days. Eating food will give you the energy to construct a shelter and plan.

### Starvation

Starvation occurs when the body does not receive enough nutrients to function correctly. Symptoms include loss of body fat, difficulty breathing, feeling colder, fatigue, and increased healing times.

## Plants and mushrooms
<!-- K: plant, mushroom, seaweed, weeds, green, sap, fungus, forage, poison, toxic, leach, berries -->
<!-- S: Only eat plants you can confidently identify as safe, and don't eat mushrooms. Aggregate berries, like raspberries and blackberries, are generally safe. -->

Plants typically have fewer calories than animals but can be easier to obtain if you can identify them. If you can't identify which plants are safe, just focus on bugs and shellfish. You should also avoid mushrooms unless you are experienced in foraging, since many can make you sick. Familiarize yourself with local plants and mushrooms before your trip.

### Foraging

The safest plant to forage is aggregate berries, such as raspberries and blackberries, since they have a distinctive look and are generally edible. Nuts and seeds are higher in calories than leafy greens, but some nuts, such as acorns, require multiple batches of boiling. Also, just because you see an animal eating a plant doesn't mean it is safe for human consumption. Never eat a plant you aren't certain is edible; even if you are certain, only eat a small amount and be on the lookout for side effects.

**The following should be avoided as the risk isn't worth the calories:**
- Mushrooms
- Plants that have:
- Umbrella-shaped flowers
- Milky sap
- Shiny leaves
- White, yellow, or red berries (except aggregate berries)
- Beans, bulbs, or seeds inside pods
- Pungent odor
- An almond/cyanide scent in the leaves or wood
- Bitter or soapy taste
- Thorns, hairs, or spines
- A three-leaved growth pattern
- Mildew or fungus
- Plants that look like dill, carrot, parsnip, or parsley
- Spoiled plants/mushrooms/seaweed
- Anything growing alongside a road or in dirty water

### Preparation

All plants you gather should be washed and cooked. Many can be eaten raw, but if you have the means to cook them, it will be safer to avoid the risk of contamination.

## Insects
<!-- K: insect, bug, grub, worm, ant, termite, locust, grasshopper, cricket, dragonfly, bait -->
<!-- S: Most insects can be eaten when cooked or used as fishing bait. -->

Insects are a good source of protein but need to be gathered in large numbers to provide a substantial meal. If you don't want to eat insects, you can use them as bait for fishing or trapping.

### Collection

Good places to find insects include rotting logs, under rocks, and in grassy fields. Common edible bugs include ants, termites, locusts, grasshoppers, crickets, dragonflies, grubs, and worms. At night, many flying insects can be attracted to a light source.

Do not eat the following:
- Biting or stinging insects
- Hairy or brightly colored insects
- Insects with a pungent odor
- Hairy caterpillars
- Spiders
- Anything that feeds off blood, such as ticks, flies, and mosquitoes

### Preparation

To prepare bugs for cooking, remove any stingers and optionally the legs, wings, and head before eating. You should cook all bugs before eating them. Worms can be placed in water for 15 minutes to purge their digestive tracts before cooking.

## Shellfish and crustaceans
<!-- K: shellfish, crustacean, clam, mussel, snail, limpet, crayfish, lobster, crab, shrimp, shell, bait, basket, trap, seafood, algae, tide, coastal, coast -->
<!-- S: Many shellfish and crustaceans are found along the shoreline; most can be eaten when cooked. -->

Shellfish and crustaceans are good sources of protein and can be found in both freshwater and saltwater. They are relatively easy to catch, making them good survival food sources.

### Collection

Search shallow waters, tide pools, and rocky areas for shellfish and crustaceans. Snails and limpets are often attached to rocks, which may be easier to access during low tide. Crayfish, lobsters, and crabs can be found under and around stones, in soft mud or sand, and may be more active at night. Crustaceans can be caught by attaching bait onto a line (no hook required, they'll grab it), baiting the shoreline and waiting for them to leave the water, or using a fish basket trap with bait.

Some shellfish may be poisonous, and be especially cautious of mussels in tropical waters during the summer, any shellfish within three days of a red tide, or shellfish covered by water during high tide.

### Preparation

You should cook all shellfish and crustaceans before eating. You can cook them in their shells.

## Fish
<!-- K: fish, hook, line, pole, bait, basket, trap, funnel, kill, seafood, meat -->
<!-- S: Most fish are edible once cooked but will require some fishing gear. -->

If you are in a longer-term survival situation or have access to fishing gear, fish can be a good source of protein and nutrients. Most fish are edible, but research which fish may be dangerous in your area.

### Fishing

Fish are most active before a storm, near rocks or logs, and under overhanging brush.

**Hook and line**

Fishing with a hook and line is likely your most familiar technique. You will need to secure a hook onto a line and optionally tie it to a pole. You can use the following knot to tie the hook to the line. Use a wet finger to help tighten it to the hook.


Hooks with barbs are more effective than barbless hooks at keeping fish on the line. For best results, bait the hooks using insects, worms, or pieces of food. If you need to craft a hook, go with a gorge hook since it is easy to make and doesn't need to be set manually. One downside is that any fish caught with a gorge hook will almost certainly die if released. To carve a gorge hook, sharpen both sides of a small section of wood or bone and taper it at the center. Place the hook into the bait.


If you do not have fishing line, you can make it from plant fibers, inner strands of paracord (using a bend knot to join them together), or other strong cordage.

If you do not have a fishing pole, you can tie the line to both the base and tip of a sturdy stick - try to mimic what an actual fishing pole looks like. You can also wrap the line around a short stick and use it as a hand line. An easier technique may be to tie the line to a tree branch so you can do other things and check it frequently.

**Traps**

You can construct a basket fish trap by weaving branches or other materials together. Bait the trap with food and place it in the water. Check it every few hours. This can also be used to catch crustaceans.

Alternatively, use a funnel fish trap by placing sticks into a V-shape with a retaining area at the end. Fish swim into the trap and are unable to find their way out. In tidal areas, you can set up a wall of stones during low tide; as the tide recedes, fish may get trapped behind the wall.


### Preparation

1. Once you catch a fish, bring it away from the shoreline. Do not hold or place it near the water before killing it, as it may flop back in.
2. Stun the fish by hitting it hard on the head with a club or rock. Then use a knife to cut the gills or pierce the brain to ensure it is dead.
3. Remove scales by scraping them off with a knife (tail to head).
4. Cut open the belly and remove the entrails. You can also cut off the head and tail to make this easier.
5. Cut the fish into usable pieces or fillet it. If it is small, you can cook it whole.
6. Cook the fish.

## Other animals
<!-- K: animal, hunt, bow, trap, deadfall, bird, reptile, amphibian, frog, snake, mammal, skin, kill, meat, butcher, skin -->
<!-- S: Hunting or trapping can be energy-consuming and difficult without proper tools. -->

In a survival situation, it's best to focus on easier-to-catch animals like insects, shellfish, crustaceans, and fish. But if you have the means to catch other animals, they can provide a good source of protein and nutrients. Unless you are a hunter with proper gear, do not try to hunt large animals.

### Hunting

**Clubs**

A club can be as simple as a stick with a heavy end. This can kill or stun fish or other small animals with a quick, forceful blow to the head.

**Spears**

A spear can be made by sharpening a stick. Unless you have experience, it's best to stab with the spear rather than throw it. To make it easier to hit your target, you can construct multiple spear points using a forked branch.

**Throwing sticks and rocks**

In a pinch, you can throw a heavy stick or rock to kill or stun small animals. Aim for the head to ensure a quick kill.

### Trapping

Traps allow for the passive capture of small animals. They can be set up and left alone while you perform other tasks. Check them every few hours. Look for signs of animal activity like tracks, droppings, or chewed vegetation. Set up traps in areas where animals are likely to pass through. You can construct funnels or walls to guide animals into them. Baiting the traps can increase their effectiveness. Smoking the traps can help mask your scent.

**Deadfalls**

Deadfall traps work by dropping a heavy object on the animal when it triggers the trap. The trigger mechanism can be made from a stick and a bait stick. The trigger is released when the animal takes the bait, causing the heavy object to fall. Place one or more of these traps near your shelter to catch mice.


1. Support stick (front / side)
2. Release stick (front / side)
3. Bait stick (front / side)
4. Bait
5. Rock



### Birds

Birds are most easily caught at night when roosting, or you can eat eggs from nests. Use a club, throwing stick, or rock to kill or stun the bird.

To prepare a bird for cooking:

1. Pluck feathers. To make this easier, place the bird in boiling water. Optionally, you can skin the bird, but that removes some fat.
2. Cut open the body cavity and remove the entrails.
3. For larger birds, cut off the feet and separate the bird into usable pieces along the joints.
4. Cook the bird.

If you catch a seabird, skin it instead of plucking the feathers to remove the oil glands. If you catch a scavenger bird like a vulture, boil it for at least 20 minutes to kill parasites.

### Reptiles and amphibians

Reptiles and amphibians are easier to catch than mammals and birds. Many can be found basking in open ground, on logs, or at the water's edge. Use a multi-pointed spear or pin them down with a stick behind the head.

Always wash your hands after handling reptiles and amphibians, as they can carry salmonella. Cook the meat thoroughly.

**Do not eat the following**:
- Box turtles
- Hawksbill turtles
- Brightly colored frogs
- Frogs with an X on their back
- Tree frogs
- Toads
- Salamanders
- Snakes: they are edible but may be dangerous to catch
- If you kill a snake, cut off and bury its head before cleaning. Never touch the head with your hands; use sticks instead.

### Small mammals

Small mammals can be caught using traps, clubs, throwing sticks, or rocks.

To prepare a small mammal for cooking:

1. Make cuts down the insides of the back legs.
2. Pull the skin off the body like a glove. You'll need to sever the head and front feet to remove the skin.
3. Cut open the abdominal cavity and remove the entrails. Be careful not to puncture the intestines.

This guide does not cover the preparation of large mammals, as they are challenging to catch and require a lot of energy to process.

## Cooking
<!-- K: cook, boil, roast, bake, utensil, container, stove -->
<!-- S: To avoid getting sick, boil, roast, or bake most foods. This will require you to start a fire or have a portable stove. -->

Do not try to preserve the food you catch; just cook and eat it.

### Stoves

Portable stoves are convenient ways to cook food. They can be fueled by wood, alcohol, or gas. Follow the manufacturer's instructions for use. You'll most likely use this to boil water rather than cook the food directly on the flame. Be sure to let the stove cool down before packing it away.

### Boiling

Boiling preserves the most nutrients in food and is the safest cooking method. A metal container filled with water can be suspended over a fire or placed onto hot coals. See the Water chapter for more information on boiling water.

### Roasting

Roasting is a quick and easy cooking method, but the food is less nutritious. You can roast food on a stick over a fire or place it on hot coals.

### Baking

You can wrap food in leaves or clay and place it in the coals of a fire to bake it. This method is slower than roasting but preserves more nutrients. Do not skin fish or birds packed with clay; the skin will stick to the clay and can be removed after cooking.

### Utensils

If you are packing utensils, a spork is a good option. Otherwise, you can handle food with a stick or your hands. Be sure to wash your hands before and after eating.

## Protection
<!-- K: protect, bear, bag, canister, box -->
<!-- S: Use bear bags or canisters to prevent animals from stealing your food. -->

You may need to protect your food from animals. Here are some methods to keep your food safe:

### Bear bags

A bear bag is a bag of food hoisted into a tree to keep it out of reach of bears and other animals. Find a tree with a branch about 20 feet (6 meters) off the ground and thick enough to support the weight of your food at about 10 feet (3 meters) from the trunk.

1. Place food in a bag.
2. Tie a rope to the bag.
3. Throw the other end of the rope over a branch. To give the line weight, attach a short stick to the end of it. Secure the stick with a clove hitch or jam knot.
4. Hoist the bag about 15 feet (4.5 meters) above the ground.
5. Tie the rope to a tree to keep the bag elevated. Use either a hitch or bowline knot.

See the Shelter and Clothing chapter for details on how to tie knots.

### Bear canisters

A bear canister is a rigid plastic container used to store food. It is bear-proof and can be left on the ground. Some campsites may provide a bear box, a large metal box used to store food.

<!-- K: food, eat, meal, hunger, hungry, forage, identify, edible, inedible -->
<!-- S: Ration food and forage when there's none left. -->

Food gives you energy but is a low priority in most survival situations since you can go weeks without it. If you haven't eaten in a while, focus on foraging for bugs, shellfish, and aggregate berries.

## Be prepared
<!-- K: prepare, gear, knowledge, skill, nuts, seeds, dried, fruit, jerky, energy, bar, mre, can, knife, multitool, multitool, bag, canister, utensil, stove, fuel -->
<!-- S: Bring extra food. Learn how to find food and cook in the wilderness. -->

### Gear

**Necessities**:
- Food (enough for the duration of your trip, plus a bit extra). Some good options include:
- Nuts
- Seeds
- Dried fruit
- Jerky
- Energy bars
- Dehydrated meals (with extra water)
- Canned food (with a can opener if needed)
- Knife or multitool
- Bear bag or canister

**Optional**:
- Cooking pot or container
- Utensils (a spork is a good option)
- Cooking stove and fuel

### Knowledge and skills
Start by learning how to do the following:
- Plan your meals for a trip.
- Cook food by boiling or roasting over a fire.
- Use a bear bag or canister to protect your food.

Once you have mastered these skills, you should learn how to do the following:
- Identify edible plants and mushrooms.
- Find and catch insects, shellfish, crustaceans, fish, and other animals.
- Preserve food.
- Make traps.

## Food essentials
<!-- K: nutrition, caloric, calorie, carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamin, mineral, storage, starvation, ration -->
<!-- S: You need around 2,000 calories daily, but you can ration your food to make it last longer. You should properly store your food to avoid spoilage. -->

### Caloric and nutritional needs
The average person needs around 2,000 calories per day. Balance carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals in your diet.

- **Carbohydrates**: Provide an immediate source of energy and are found in grains, fruits, and vegetables. Aim for 45–65% of your daily caloric intake.
- **Fats**: Provide long-term energy and are used in essential bodily functions. They are found in meats, oils, nuts, and seeds. Aim for 20–35% of your daily caloric intake.
- **Proteins**: Build and repair tissues and are found in meats, legumes, nuts, and seeds.
- **Vitamins and minerals**: Essential for overall health and are found in most foods, but a varied diet is necessary to ensure you get all the essential nutrients.

### Storage

Food should be stored in airtight containers to prevent spoilage and contamination. Do not pack foods that spoil quickly or require refrigeration. If you bring zipper storage bags, you can also use them for water procurement.

### Rationing

If you are in a survival situation, ration your food to make it last longer. Eat two-thirds of your food in the first half of your survival situation (about 2-3 days after your expected return date) and the remaining third in the following days. Eating food will give you the energy to construct a shelter and plan.

### Starvation

Starvation occurs when the body does not receive enough nutrients to function correctly. Symptoms include loss of body fat, difficulty breathing, feeling colder, fatigue, and increased healing times.

## Plants and mushrooms
<!-- K: plant, mushroom, seaweed, weeds, green, sap, fungus, forage, poison, toxic, leach, berries -->
<!-- S: Only eat plants you can confidently identify as safe, and don't eat mushrooms. Aggregate berries, like raspberries and blackberries, are generally safe. -->

Plants typically have fewer calories than animals but can be easier to obtain if you can identify them. If you can't identify which plants are safe, just focus on bugs and shellfish. You should also avoid mushrooms unless you are experienced in foraging, since many can make you sick. Familiarize yourself with local plants and mushrooms before your trip.

### Foraging

The safest plant to forage is aggregate berries, such as raspberries and blackberries, since they have a distinctive look and are generally edible. Nuts and seeds are higher in calories than leafy greens, but some nuts, such as acorns, require multiple batches of boiling. Also, just because you see an animal eating a plant doesn't mean it is safe for human consumption. Never eat a plant you aren't certain is edible; even if you are certain, only eat a small amount and be on the lookout for side effects.

**The following should be avoided as the risk isn't worth the calories:**
- Mushrooms
- Plants that have:
- Umbrella-shaped flowers
- Milky sap
- Shiny leaves
- White, yellow, or red berries (except aggregate berries)
- Beans, bulbs, or seeds inside pods
- Pungent odor
- An almond/cyanide scent in the leaves or wood
- Bitter or soapy taste
- Thorns, hairs, or spines
- A three-leaved growth pattern
- Mildew or fungus
- Plants that look like dill, carrot, parsnip, or parsley
- Spoiled plants/mushrooms/seaweed
- Anything growing alongside a road or in dirty water

### Preparation

All plants you gather should be washed and cooked. Many can be eaten raw, but if you have the means to cook them, it will be safer to avoid the risk of contamination.

## Insects
<!-- K: insect, bug, grub, worm, ant, termite, locust, grasshopper, cricket, dragonfly, bait -->
<!-- S: Most insects can be eaten when cooked or used as fishing bait. -->

Insects are a good source of protein but need to be gathered in large numbers to provide a substantial meal. If you don't want to eat insects, you can use them as bait for fishing or trapping.

### Collection

Good places to find insects include rotting logs, under rocks, and in grassy fields. Common edible bugs include ants, termites, locusts, grasshoppers, crickets, dragonflies, grubs, and worms. At night, many flying insects can be attracted to a light source.

Do not eat the following:
- Biting or stinging insects
- Hairy or brightly colored insects
- Insects with a pungent odor
- Hairy caterpillars
- Spiders
- Anything that feeds off blood, such as ticks, flies, and mosquitoes

### Preparation

To prepare bugs for cooking, remove any stingers and optionally the legs, wings, and head before eating. You should cook all bugs before eating them. Worms can be placed in water for 15 minutes to purge their digestive tracts before cooking.

## Shellfish and crustaceans
<!-- K: shellfish, crustacean, clam, mussel, snail, limpet, crayfish, lobster, crab, shrimp, shell, bait, basket, trap, seafood, algae, tide, coastal, coast -->
<!-- S: Many shellfish and crustaceans are found along the shoreline; most can be eaten when cooked. -->

Shellfish and crustaceans are good sources of protein and can be found in both freshwater and saltwater. They are relatively easy to catch, making them good survival food sources.

### Collection

Search shallow waters, tide pools, and rocky areas for shellfish and crustaceans. Snails and limpets are often attached to rocks, which may be easier to access during low tide. Crayfish, lobsters, and crabs can be found under and around stones, in soft mud or sand, and may be more active at night. Crustaceans can be caught by attaching bait onto a line (no hook required, they'll grab it), baiting the shoreline and waiting for them to leave the water, or using a fish basket trap with bait.

Some shellfish may be poisonous, and be especially cautious of mussels in tropical waters during the summer, any shellfish within three days of a red tide, or shellfish covered by water during high tide.

### Preparation

You should cook all shellfish and crustaceans before eating. You can cook them in their shells.

## Fish
<!-- K: fish, hook, line, pole, bait, basket, trap, funnel, kill, seafood, meat -->
<!-- S: Most fish are edible once cooked but will require some fishing gear. -->

If you are in a longer-term survival situation or have access to fishing gear, fish can be a good source of protein and nutrients. Most fish are edible, but research which fish may be dangerous in your area.

### Fishing

Fish are most active before a storm, near rocks or logs, and under overhanging brush.

**Hook and line**

Fishing with a hook and line is likely your most familiar technique. You will need to secure a hook onto a line and optionally tie it to a pole. You can use the following knot to tie the hook to the line. Use a wet finger to help tighten it to the hook.


Hooks with barbs are more effective than barbless hooks at keeping fish on the line. For best results, bait the hooks using insects, worms, or pieces of food. If you need to craft a hook, go with a gorge hook since it is easy to make and doesn't need to be set manually. One downside is that any fish caught with a gorge hook will almost certainly die if released. To carve a gorge hook, sharpen both sides of a small section of wood or bone and taper it at the center. Place the hook into the bait.


If you do not have fishing line, you can make it from plant fibers, inner strands of paracord (using a bend knot to join them together), or other strong cordage.

If you do not have a fishing pole, you can tie the line to both the base and tip of a sturdy stick - try to mimic what an actual fishing pole looks like. You can also wrap the line around a short stick and use it as a hand line. An easier technique may be to tie the line to a tree branch so you can do other things and check it frequently.

**Traps**

You can construct a basket fish trap by weaving branches or other materials together. Bait the trap with food and place it in the water. Check it every few hours. This can also be used to catch crustaceans.

Alternatively, use a funnel fish trap by placing sticks into a V-shape with a retaining area at the end. Fish swim into the trap and are unable to find their way out. In tidal areas, you can set up a wall of stones during low tide; as the tide recedes, fish may get trapped behind the wall.


### Preparation

1. Once you catch a fish, bring it away from the shoreline. Do not hold or place it near the water before killing it, as it may flop back in.
2. Stun the fish by hitting it hard on the head with a club or rock. Then use a knife to cut the gills or pierce the brain to ensure it is dead.
3. Remove scales by scraping them off with a knife (tail to head).
4. Cut open the belly and remove the entrails. You can also cut off the head and tail to make this easier.
5. Cut the fish into usable pieces or fillet it. If it is small, you can cook it whole.
6. Cook the fish.

## Other animals
<!-- K: animal, hunt, bow, trap, deadfall, bird, reptile, amphibian, frog, snake, mammal, skin, kill, meat, butcher, skin -->
<!-- S: Hunting or trapping can be energy-consuming and difficult without proper tools. -->

In a survival situation, it's best to focus on easier-to-catch animals like insects, shellfish, crustaceans, and fish. But if you have the means to catch other animals, they can provide a good source of protein and nutrients. Unless you are a hunter with proper gear, do not try to hunt large animals.

### Hunting

**Clubs**

A club can be as simple as a stick with a heavy end. This can kill or stun fish or other small animals with a quick, forceful blow to the head.

**Spears**

A spear can be made by sharpening a stick. Unless you have experience, it's best to stab with the spear rather than throw it. To make it easier to hit your target, you can construct multiple spear points using a forked branch.

**Throwing sticks and rocks**

In a pinch, you can throw a heavy stick or rock to kill or stun small animals. Aim for the head to ensure a quick kill.

### Trapping

Traps allow for the passive capture of small animals. They can be set up and left alone while you perform other tasks. Check them every few hours. Look for signs of animal activity like tracks, droppings, or chewed vegetation. Set up traps in areas where animals are likely to pass through. You can construct funnels or walls to guide animals into them. Baiting the traps can increase their effectiveness. Smoking the traps can help mask your scent.

**Deadfalls**

Deadfall traps work by dropping a heavy object on the animal when it triggers the trap. The trigger mechanism can be made from a stick and a bait stick. The trigger is released when the animal takes the bait, causing the heavy object to fall. Place one or more of these traps near your shelter to catch mice.

figure_4_trap.webp)

1. Support stick (front / side)
2. Release stick (front / side)
3. Bait stick (front / side)
4. Bait
5. Rock



### Birds

Birds are most easily caught at night when roosting, or you can eat eggs from nests. Use a club, throwing stick, or rock to kill or stun the bird.

To prepare a bird for cooking:

1. Pluck feathers. To make this easier, place the bird in boiling water. Optionally, you can skin the bird, but that removes some fat.
2. Cut open the body cavity and remove the entrails.
3. For larger birds, cut off the feet and separate the bird into usable pieces along the joints.
4. Cook the bird.

If you catch a seabird, skin it instead of plucking the feathers to remove the oil glands. If you catch a scavenger bird like a vulture, boil it for at least 20 minutes to kill parasites.

### Reptiles and amphibians

Reptiles and amphibians are easier to catch than mammals and birds. Many can be found basking in open ground, on logs, or at the water's edge. Use a multi-pointed spear or pin them down with a stick behind the head.

Always wash your hands after handling reptiles and amphibians, as they can carry salmonella. Cook the meat thoroughly.

**Do not eat the following**:
- Box turtles
- Hawksbill turtles
- Brightly colored frogs
- Frogs with an X on their back
- Tree frogs
- Toads
- Salamanders
- Snakes: they are edible but may be dangerous to catch
- If you kill a snake, cut off and bury its head before cleaning. Never touch the head with your hands; use sticks instead.

### Small mammals

Small mammals can be caught using traps, clubs, throwing sticks, or rocks.

To prepare a small mammal for cooking:

1. Make cuts down the insides of the back legs.
2. Pull the skin off the body like a glove. You'll need to sever the head and front feet to remove the skin.
3. Cut open the abdominal cavity and remove the entrails. Be careful not to puncture the intestines.

This guide does not cover the preparation of large mammals, as they are challenging to catch and require a lot of energy to process.

## Cooking
<!-- K: cook, boil, roast, bake, utensil, container, stove -->
<!-- S: To avoid getting sick, boil, roast, or bake most foods. This will require you to start a fire or have a portable stove. -->

Do not try to preserve the food you catch; just cook and eat it.

### Stoves

Portable stoves are convenient ways to cook food. They can be fueled by wood, alcohol, or gas. Follow the manufacturer's instructions for use. You'll most likely use this to boil water rather than cook the food directly on the flame. Be sure to let the stove cool down before packing it away.

### Boiling

Boiling preserves the most nutrients in food and is the safest cooking method. A metal container filled with water can be suspended over a fire or placed onto hot coals. See the Water chapter for more information on boiling water.

### Roasting

Roasting is a quick and easy cooking method, but the food is less nutritious. You can roast food on a stick over a fire or place it on hot coals.

### Baking

You can wrap food in leaves or clay and place it in the coals of a fire to bake it. This method is slower than roasting but preserves more nutrients. Do not skin fish or birds packed with clay; the skin will stick to the clay and can be removed after cooking.

### Utensils

If you are packing utensils, a spork is a good option. Otherwise, you can handle food with a stick or your hands. Be sure to wash your hands before and after eating.

## Protection
<!-- K: protect, bear, bag, canister, box -->
<!-- S: Use bear bags or canisters to prevent animals from stealing your food. -->

You may need to protect your food from animals. Here are some methods to keep your food safe:

### Bear bags

A bear bag is a bag of food hoisted into a tree to keep it out of reach of bears and other animals. Find a tree with a branch about 20 feet (6 meters) off the ground and thick enough to support the weight of your food at about 10 feet (3 meters) from the trunk.

1. Place food in a bag.
2. Tie a rope to the bag.
3. Throw the other end of the rope over a branch. To give the line weight, attach a short stick to the end of it. Secure the stick with a clove hitch or jam knot.
4. Hoist the bag about 15 feet (4.5 meters) above the ground.
5. Tie the rope to a tree to keep the bag elevated. Use either a hitch or bowline knot.

See the Shelter and Clothing chapter for details on how to tie knots.

### Bear canisters

A bear canister is a rigid plastic container used to store food. It is bear-proof and can be left on the ground. Some campsites may provide a bear box, a large metal box used to store food.

Oyster Mushroom
A gilled mushroom that grows on decaying hardwood, often in clusters. It can be identified by its fan or oyster shape and white gills that extend down the short stem. Oyster mushrooms are edible.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleurotus

Oyster Mushroom
A gilled mushroom that grows on decaying hardwood, often in clusters. It can be identified by its fan or oyster shape and white gills that extend down the short stem. Oyster mushrooms are edible.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleurotus

Image by Harmil~commonswiki (CC BY 2.5)

Chicken of the Woods
A bright orange-yellow shelf mushroom that grows on trees, often found on hardwoods in forests. The underside will have pores instead of gills and be white or yellow. It is edible when young and tender, but can cause gastrointestinal upset in some individuals.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laetiporus

Chicken of the Woods
A bright orange-yellow shelf mushroom that grows on trees, often found on hardwoods in forests. The underside will have pores instead of gills and be white or yellow. It is edible when young and tender, but can cause gastrointestinal upset in some individuals.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laetiporus

Image by Jean-Pol GRANDMONT (CC BY 2.5)

Stinging Nettle
A plant with serrated leaves and tiny, stinging hairs, commonly found in moist, shaded areas. Contact causes a painful, itchy rash, but cooking or drying neutralizes the sting. It is edible after boiled, but harvesting should be done with gloves to avoid skin irritation.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urtica_dioica

Stinging Nettle
A plant with serrated leaves and tiny, stinging hairs, commonly found in moist, shaded areas. Contact causes a painful, itchy rash, but cooking or drying neutralizes the sting. It is edible after boiled, but harvesting should be done with gloves to avoid skin irritation.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urtica_dioica

Image by Pokrajac (CC BY-SA 3.0)